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General Chemistry I

Purpose of Course  showclose

Course Information  showclose

Welcome to CHEM101.  Below, please find general information on this course and its requirements.

Course Designer: Joanna Smithback, Ph.D., and Rachel Lerebours

Primary Resources: This course combines the resources listed below for a series of readings and corresponding mini-lectures.  Unit assessments were developed by the Saylor Foundation.

• Stephen Lower’s: General Chemistry Virtual Textbook
• Khan Academy: Chemistry lectures

Requirements for Completion: This course comprises a variety of lectures and reading materials.  Assessments with answer keys are found at the end of each unit to assist you in the mastery of each section.  To successfully complete this course, you must score at least a 70% on the cumulative final.

Time Commitment: This course should take approximately 94 hours to complete, exclusive of the final exam.  The 50-question exam should take no more than 2 hours.

Tips/Suggestions: The material in this course is progressive.  If you find that you are having difficulty understanding some of the concepts, it is suggested that you revisit the previous unit of this course or review the information contained in the prerequisite courses.  A printed periodic table—containing element names, symbols, and atomic masses—and a calculator are also suggested for use throughout this course.  They are also allowed to be used on the final exam.

This course features a number of Khan Academy™ videos. Khan Academy™ has a library of over 3,000 videos covering a range of topics (math, physics, chemistry, finance, history and more), plus over 300 practice exercises. All Khan Academy™ materials are available for free at www.khanacademy.org.

A version of this course is also available in iTunes U. Preview the course in your browser or view our entire suite of iTunes U courses.

Learning Outcomes  showclose

Course Requirements  showclose

Preliminary Information

Optional Mobile Apps

Link: Quick Learning LLC’s Quick Periodic Table of the Elements (iOS App) or Socratica LLC’s Periodic Table (Android App)
 
Instructions: Both of these free apps will be great references as you work through this course. In these apps, you can choose one of 4 different views of the periodic table to access information such as the atomic mass, atomic number, chemical and physical characteristics, electron configuration, and Lewis dot structure.
 
Terms of Use: Please respect the copyright and terms of use displayed on the webpage above.

• Unit 1
• Unit 2
• Unit 3
• Unit 4
• Unit 5
• Unit 6
• Final Exam
• All Units

Unit Outline show close

Unit 1: Matter and Measurements  

Our first step in this course is to gain a basic understanding of matter and define the basic terminology used to describe matter. This unit will also provide you with a refresher on measurements, as much of this class will require you to express quantities in standard units and amounts. We will also learn about significant figures, which may be a new concept for those of you who have not yet taken a science course.

Time Advisory   show close


Learning Outcomes   show close


1.1 Matter  

1.1.1 Properties of Matter  

1.1.1.1 Extensive versus Intensive Properties  

• Reading: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Classification and Properties of Matter”

  Link: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Classification and Properties of Matter” (HTML)
  
  Instructions: Read the “Extensive and Intensive Properties” section. Remember that extensive properties, such as volume and mass, rely on the “extent” to which matter is present. Intensive properties, such as density and viscosity, are independent of the quantity of matter and are inherent to the matter.
  
  Reading this section should take you approximately 30 minutes.
  
  Terms of Use: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 License. It is attributed to Stephen Lower.

  See a broken link? Please let us know!

1.1.1.2 Physical versus Chemical Properties  

• Reading: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Classification and Properties of Matter”

  Link: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Classification and Properties of Matter” (HTML)
  
  Instructions: Read the “Physical and Chemical Properties” section. Note that, because the two properties of matter are closely related, the distinction can become difficult to discern; however, for our purposes, we will define a physical property as one that can be observed without changing the matter’s composition.
  
  Reading this section should take you approximately 30 minutes.
  
  Terms of Use: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 License. It is attributed to Stephen Lower.

  See a broken link? Please let us know!

1.1.2 States of Matter  

• Reading: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Matter Under the Microscope”

  Link: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Matter Under the Microscope” (HTML)
  
  Instructions: Read the “Solids, Liquids, and Gases” section. Note the differences between these three phases of matter on both the microscopic and macroscopic level. Solids, like wooden blocks, have definite shape and definite volume, and the particles are ordered and close together. Liquids have definite volume and indefinite shape, meaning they take on the shape of the container. Imagine the differences between iced tea in a pitcher versus in a glass. A liquid’s particles are less ordered, but still relatively close together. Gases, such as the air inside balloons, have indefinite shape and indefinite volume and their particles are highly disordered. 
  
  Reading this section should take you approximately 30 minutes.
  
  Terms of Use: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 License. It is attributed to Stephen Lower.

  See a broken link? Please let us know!

• Optional Mobile App: Object Enterprises’ VideoScience: “Phase Change”

  Link: Object Enterprises’ VideoScience (iOS App)
   
  Instructions: Note that the app is only available for iOS users, which is why it is optional. Watch the “Gallium Plating Part I,” “Gallium Plating Part II,” “Dissolving Plastic,” “Cross Linked Polymers,” and “Cross Linked Slime” videos. These videos demonstrate the topics of phase change and amorphous solids.
   
  Terms of Use: Please respect the copyright and terms of use displayed on the webpage above.

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1.1.3 Density  

• Reading: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Understanding Density and Buoyancy”

  Link: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Understanding Density and Buoyancy” (HTML)
  
  Instructions: Read the first two sections: “Defining Density” and “Densities of Substances and Materials.” Note that density is temperature dependent and the units differ for solids (g/cm³), liquids (g/mL) and gases (g/L).
  
  Reading these sections should take you approximately 45 minutes.
  
  Terms of Use: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 License. It is attributed to Stephen Lower.

  See a broken link? Please let us know!

• Optional Mobile App: Object Enterprises’ VideoScience: “Density”

  Link: Object Enterprises’ VideoScience (iOS App)
   
  Instructions: Watch the “Composition of an Orange,” “A Density Problem,” and “Density of Two Liquids” videos. These videos demonstrate the concept of density.
   
  Terms of Use: Please respect the copyright and terms of use displayed on the webpage above.

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1.1.4 Energy and Work  

• Reading: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Energy, Heat, and Temperature”

  Link: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Energy, Heat, and Temperature” (HTML)
  
  Instructions: Read this webpage. Notice the distinctions made between heat and temperature. While both deal with kinetic energy, the energy of motion, “heat” refers to thermal energy transfer, while “temperature” is a measure of the kinetic energy of a system. Potential energy, the energy of position, in chemistry usually refers to the energy stored in chemical bonds. This material will be discussed in more detail in Unit 6. 
  
  Reading this webpage should take you approximately 1 hour and 30 minutes.
  
  Terms of Use: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 License. It is attributed to Stephen Lower.

  See a broken link? Please let us know!

• Optional Mobile App: Object Enterprises’ VideoScience: “Heat and Light Energy”

  Link: Object Enterprises’ VideoScience (iOS App)
   
  Instructions: Watch the “Heat Sensitive Materials” and “Piezoelectric Cannon” videos. These videos will demonstrate the concepts of heat and light energy.
   
  Terms of Use: Please respect the copyright and terms of use displayed on the webpage above.

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1.1.5 Composition  

1.1.5.1 Homogeneous versus Heterogeneous  

• Reading: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Classification and Properties of Matter”

  Link: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Classification and Properties of Matter” (HTML)
  
  Instructions: Read the “Classification of Matter” section. All matter can be classified as either a pure substance or a mixture. Furthermore, for a pure substance a subcategory of either single element or compound can be applied. Mixtures are further categorized as either homogeneous (e.g., single phase) or heterogeneous (e.g., multiple phases). The distinction between homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures presented here is dependent on phase, or physical, boundaries. This section also contains material relevant to the next section of the course.
  
  Reading this section should take you approximately 1 hour and 30 minutes.
  
  Terms of Use: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 License. It is attributed to Stephen Lower.

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1.1.5.2 Mixtures and Pure Substances  

• Reading: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “What is Chemistry All About?”

  Link: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “What is Chemistry All About?” (HTML)
  
  Instructions: Read the “Chemical Composition” section. Keep in mind that mixtures, whether homogeneous or heterogeneous, can be separated by physical means into pure substances. Techniques of separation were discussed in the previous section. Pure substances comprise elements and compounds.
  
  Reading this section should take you approximately 45 minutes.
  
  Terms of Use: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 License. It is attributed to Stephen Lower.

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1.1.6 Chemical versus Physical Changes  

• Reading: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “What is Chemistry All About?”

  Link: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “What is Chemistry All About?” (HTML)
  
  Instructions: Read the “Chemical Change,” “Energetics of Chemical Change,” and “Dynamics of Chemical Change” sections. The energetics of chemical change will be discussed more thoroughly in Unit 6, while the dynamics of chemical change are a topic for CHEM102. To determine if you are dealing with a physical or chemical change, ask yourself if you can reverse the process to recover the original material. For example, ice melting is a physical change, because you can re-freeze the water; however, cooking a steak is a chemical change, because you cannot recover the raw meat.
  
  Reading these sections should take you approximately 15 minutes.
  
  Terms of Use: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 License. It is attributed to Stephen Lower.

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1.2 Measurement and Notation  

1.2.1 The Metric System  

• Reading: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “The Measure of Matter”

  Link: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “The Measure of Matter” (HTML)
  
  Instructions: Read the “Units of Measure” section. Remember that every measurement has a numerical value associated with a unit!
  
  Reading this section should take you approximately 15 minutes. 
  
  Terms of Use: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 License. It is attributed to Stephen Lower.

  See a broken link? Please let us know!

1.2.2 Systeme Internationale (SI) Units  

• Reading: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “The Measure of Matter”

  Links: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “The Measure of Matter” (HTML)
  
  Instructions: Read “The SI Base Units” and “The SI Decimal Prefixes” sections. Note that the base unit for mass (kg) is the only “base” unit with a prefix. This arises from the fact that the “gram” is so small (i.e., a nickel weighs approximately 5 grams) that “real world” objects cannot feasibly be measured in grams. Can you imagine how many grams a table would weigh? Also, with the exception of seconds, the SI system (System International) is a base-10 system, allowing easier conversion between units.
  
  Reading these sections should take you approximately 15 minutes.
  
  Terms of Use: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 License. It is attributed to Stephen Lower.

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1.2.3 Error and Uncertainty in Measurements  

• Reading: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “The Meaning of Measure”

  Link: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “The Meaning of Measure” (HTML)
  
  Instructions: Read the “Uncertainty Is Certain!” section. Be aware that every measured value contains some uncertainty in the last digit. For example, if you are using a ruler to measure length, it is necessary to interpolate between gradations given on the ruler. This gives the uncertain digit in the measured length. While there may not be much deviation, what you estimate to be the last digit may not be the same as someone else’s estimation.
  
  Reading this section should take you approximately 15 minutes.
  
  Terms of Use: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 License. It is attributed to Stephen Lower.

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1.2.3.1 Random versus Systematic Error  

• Reading: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “The Meaning of Measure”

  Link: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “The Meaning of Measure” (HTML)
  
  Instructions: Read the “Scatter and Error in Measured Values” section. While error is inherent to measurement, some errors are easier to detect and/or eliminate. 
  
  Reading this section should take you approximately 30 minutes.
  
  Terms of Use: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 License. It is attributed to Stephen Lower.

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1.2.3.2 Accuracy and Precision  

• Reading: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “The Meaning of Measure”

  Link: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “The Meaning of Measure” (HTML)
  
  Instructions: Read the “Accuracy and Precision” section. Imagine accuracy as hitting the “bulls-eye” on a dartboard every time, while precision corresponds to hitting the “triple 20” consistently. As another example, consider an analytical balance has a calibration error such that it reads 0.24 grams too high. Then even though measuring identical mass readings of a single sample would mean excellent precision, the accuracy of the measurement would be poor.
  
  Reading this section should take you approximately 15 minutes. 
  
  Terms of Use: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 License. It is attributed to Stephen Lower.

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1.2.4 Significant Figures and Rounding  

• Reading: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Significant Figures and Rounding Off”

  Link: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Significant Figures and Rounding Off” (HTML)
  
  Instructions: Read this webpage. The concept of significant figures, commonly referred to as “sig figs,” is important when solving scientific math problems and should be carefully observed! The rules for significant figure rounding of addition and subtraction calculations are the same, but different than those for multiplication and division.
  
  Reading this article should take you approximately 1 hour.
  
  Terms of Use: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 License. It is attributed to Stephen Lower.

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Unit 1 Quiz  

• Assessment: The Saylor Foundation’s “CHEM101 Unit 1 Quiz”

  Link: The Saylor Foundation’s “CHEM101 Unit 1 Quiz” (PDF)
  
  Instructions: Complete this assessment. When you have finished, check your work against the “Unit 1 Quiz Answers” (PDF).  
  
  Completing this assessment should take you approximately 1 hour.

  See a broken link? Please let us know!

Unit 2: The Atom  

Now that we have a basic understanding of matter, we will delve into the basic unit of matter: the atom. The atom (along with its protons, neutrons, and electrons) serves as the starting point for the study of chemistry. Scientists have studied atoms for hundreds of years and have developed a number of different models in order to describe them. At present, chemists use the quantum mechanical model, which has been around for decades. The “laws” of this model continue to intrigue and spark debate among scientists today. One particularly interesting theory, for example, states that it is impossible to know the exact location and velocity of an electron at the same time! 

Time Advisory   show close


Learning Outcomes   show close


2.1 Atoms and Elements  

2.1.1 History of the Elements  

• Reading: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Atoms, Elements, and the Nucleus”

  Link: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Atoms, Elements, and the Nucleus” (HTML)
  
  Instructions: Read the “Elements” section. Elements get their names from many sources. The “new” elements are purely synthetic and are usually named by the scientist who develops them. What would you name an element?
  
  Reading this section should take you approximately 30 minutes.   
  
  Terms of Use: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 License. It is attributed to Stephen Lower.

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2.1.2 Dalton and Atomic Theory  

• Reading: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Atoms, Elements and the Nucleus”

  Link: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Atoms, Elements and the Nucleus” (HTML)
  
  Instructions: Read the “Atoms Become Real” section. Familiarize yourself with the laws of conservation of mass, constant composition, and multiple proportion. These concepts play a key role in Dalton’s atomic theory. Also look at the section on relative masses of atoms, which arose from Dalton’s theory.
  
  Reading this section should take you approximately 45 minutes.  
  
  Terms of Use: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 License. It is attributed to Stephen Lower.

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2.1.3 Subatomic Particles and Isotopes  

• Reading: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Atoms, Elements, and the Nucleus”

  Link: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Atoms, Elements, and the Nucleus” (HTML)
  
  Instructions: Read “The Nuclear Atom” section on subatomic particles. The section also covers isotopes and isotopic notation – the concept that a given element type can possess different numbers of neutrons. These concepts were not part of Dalton’s atomic theory. Can you identify why?
  
  Reading this section should take you approximately 30 minutes.
  
  Terms of Use: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 License. It is attributed to Stephen Lower.

  See a broken link? Please let us know!

• Web Media: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “Elements and Atoms” and “Introduction to the Atom”

  Links: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “Elements and Atoms” (YouTube) and “Introduction to the Atom” (YouTube)
   
  Instructions: Watch these lectures to reinforce the concepts covered in the reading assignment. 
  
  Watching these lectures should take you approximately 45 minutes.
   
  Terms of Use: These videos are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 License. These videos are attributed to Khan Academy.

  See a broken link? Please let us know!

2.1.4 Atomic Masses  

• Reading: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Atoms, Elements, and the Nucleus”

  Link: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Atoms, Elements, and the Nucleus” (HTML)
  
  Instructions: Read the “Atomic Masses, Combining Weights” section. The concept of unified atomic masses is introduced.
  
  Reading this section should take you approximately 15 minutes.
  
  Terms of Use: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 License. It is attributed to Stephen Lower.

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2.2 Avogadro’s Number and Moles  

• Reading: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Avogadro’s Number and the Mole”

  Link: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Avogadro’s Number and the Mole” (HTML)
  
  Instructions: Read this webpage. This material covers moles and molar masses, which will be a recurring theme in later units. Keep in mind that the “mole” is nothing more than a number. Just as a dozen always equals 12 and a gross is always 144, a mole always equals 6.022 x 10²³.
  
  Reading this webpage should take you approximately 1 hour. 
  
  Terms of Use: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 License. It is attributed to Stephen Lower.

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• Web Media: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “The Mole and Avogadro's Number”

  Link: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “The Mole and Avogadro's Number” (YouTube)
  
  Instructions: Watch this lecture to reinforce the concepts covered in the reading assignment.
  
  Watching this lecture should take you approximately 15 minutes.
  
  Terms of Use: This video is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 License. This video is attributed to Khan Academy.

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2.3 Atomic Theories  

2.3.1 Foundations of Atomic Theory  

• Reading: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Quanta: A New View of the World”

  Link: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Quanta: A New View of the World” (HTML)
  
  Instructions: Read this webpage. This material explains how classical physics was modified, leading to the development of quantum theory. The term quantum refers to the observation that energy is a system that can only exist in discrete, or distinct, levels.
  
  Reading this webpage should take you approximately 1 hour and 30 minutes.
  
  Terms of Use: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 License. It is attributed to Stephen Lower.

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2.3.2 Wave-Particle Duality of Light  

• Reading: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Light, Particles and Waves”

  Link: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Light, Particles and Waves” (HTML)
  
  Instructions: Read this webpage. This material describes why light can be classified as both a wave and a particle.
  
  Reading this webpage should take you approximately 1 hour and 30 minutes.  
  
  Terms of Use: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 License. It is attributed to Stephen Lower.

  See a broken link? Please let us know!

• Optional Mobile App: Object Enterprises’ VideoScience: “Electromagnetic Spectrum and Behavior of Light”

  Link: Object Enterprises’ VideoScience (iOS App)
   
  Instructions: Watch the “Laser Web,” “Color Wheel,” “Light Physics,” “UV Sensitive Beads,” “Television Stone,” “Diffraction Grating Glasses,” and “LED Light” videos. These videos explain the electromagnetic spectrum and how light and energy affect the arrangement of an atom.
   
  Terms of Use: Please respect the copyright and terms of use displayed on the webpage above.

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2.3.3 Bohr Model  

• Reading: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “The Bohr Atom”

  Link: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “The Bohr Atom” (HTML)
  
  Instructions: Read this webpage. The Bohr model of the atom introduces orbitals and explains the observation of atomic line spectra. Orbitals are regions of space where electrons orbiting the nucleus of an atom can reside. Atomic line spectra is electromagnetic radiation, or light energy, associated with electron redistribution among pairs of orbitals.
  
  Reading this webpage should take you approximately 1 hour and 30 minutes. 
  
  Terms of Use: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 License. It is attributed to Stephen Lower.

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2.3.4 Quantum-Mechanical Model  

• Reading: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “The Quantum Atom”

  Link: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook “The Quantum Atom” (HTML)
  
  Instructions: Read this webpage. This material describes the quantum model of the atom, which differs slightly from the Bohr model, mainly in how each explains electron behavior. Do not get them confused! Many of the fundamental concepts of modern physics grew out of these models, so much of the material may be reminiscent of a physics course.
  
  Reading this webpage should take you approximately 1 hour and 30 minutes. 
  
  Terms of Use: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 License. It is attributed to Stephen Lower.

  See a broken link? Please let us know!

• Web Media: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “Orbitals”

  Link: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “Orbitals” (YouTube)
  
  Instructions: Watch this lecture to reinforce the concepts covered in the reading assignment.
  
  Watching this lecture should take you approximately 15 minutes.
  
  Terms of Use: This video is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 License. This video is attributed to Khan Academy.

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2.4 The Periodic Table of the Elements  

• Web Media: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “More on Orbitals and Electron Configuration”, “Electron Configuration”, “Electron Configuration 2”, and “Valence Electrons”

  Links: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “More on Orbitals and Electron Configuration” (YouTube), “Electron Configuration” (YouTube), “Electron Configuration 2” (YouTube), and “Valence Electrons” (YouTube)
  
  Instructions: Watch these four videos to reinforce the concepts covered in the reading assignment.
  
  Watching these videos should take you approximately 1 hour.
  
  Terms of Use: These videos are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 License. These videos are attributed to Khan Academy.

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2.4.1 Electron Configurations  

• Reading: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Atomic Electron Configurations”

  Link: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Atomic Electron Configurations” (HTML)
  
  Instructions: Read this webpage. This material covers electron configurations and the arrangement of the periodic table. An electronic configuration is a listing of the occupancy of an atom’s electrons amongst its orbitals. The periodic table was purposefully designed to reflect the chemical nature of each element. Metals, for example, are on the left-hand side, while noble gases are on the right. Halogens are always to the immediate left of the noble gases. By the end of this section, you should be able to identify these and other groups on a periodic table. Remember that a group is a vertical column, while a period is a horizontal row.
  
  Reading this webpage should take you approximately 1 hour and 30 minutes.
  
  Terms of Use: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 License. It is attributed to Stephen Lower.

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2.4.2 Trends in the Periodic Table  

• Web Media: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “Groups of the Periodic Table”, “Periodic Table Trends: Ionization”, and “Other Periodic Table Trends”

  Links: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “Groups of the Periodic Table” (YouTube), “Periodic Table Trends: Ionization” (YouTube), and “Other Periodic Table Trends” (YouTube)
  
  Instructions: Groups on the periodic table are important because elements within a particular group, in general, have similar chemical properties and reactivity. Ionization refers to the process of removing an electron from an atom. Ionization energy pertains to the energy supplied to facilitate this process. Watch these three lectures to reinforce the concepts covered in the reading assignment. 
  
  Watching these lectures should take you approximately 45 minutes.
  
  Terms of Use: These videos are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 License. These videos are attributed to Khan Academy.

  See a broken link? Please let us know!

• Reading: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Periodic Properties of the Elements”

  Link: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Periodic Properties of the Elements” (HTML)
  
  Instructions: Read this webpage. This material reinforces what you just learned about the arrangement of the periodic table. It also discusses the general trends exhibited, including atomic size, ionization energy, electron affinity, and electronegativity.
  
  Reading this webpage should take you approximately 2 hours.
  
  Terms of Use: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 License. It is attributed to Stephen Lower.

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Unit 2 Quiz  

• Assessment: The Saylor Foundation’s “CHEM101 Unit 2 Quiz”

  Link: The Saylor Foundation’s “CHEM101 Unit 2 Quiz” (PDF)
  
  Instructions: Complete this assessment. When you have finished, check your work against the “Unit 2 Quiz Answers” (PDF).
  
  Completing this assessment should take you approximately 2 hours.

  See a broken link? Please let us know!

Unit 3: Bonding  

Bonds are connections between atoms. (Note that although we will focus on bonds in this unit, there are additional forces that affect atoms, i.e., intermolecular forces.) A solid grasp of VSEPR (Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion) theory will help us understand how elements that differ by one or two atomic numbers behave similarly or differently. VSEPR theory explains that the number of electrons an element possesses is intimately tied to its chemical properties. For example, though sodium differs from both neon and potassium by just one atomic number, it is extremely different from neon but very similar to potassium. This is because neon is a stable element with eight valence electrons (as predicted by VSEPR theory). Sodium and potassium have one and two valence electrons, respectively, which explain why they are similar to one another but quite different from neon. VSEPR is also used to predict the 3-dimensional structure, or geometry, of molecules.

Time Advisory   show close


Learning Outcomes   show close


3.1 Chemical Bonds  

3.1.1 Properties of Bonds  

• Reading: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Introduction to Chemical Bonding”

  Link: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Introduction to Chemical Bonding” (HTML)
  
  Instructions: Read this webpage. Pay close attention to how bond length and bond energies are related.
  
  Reading this webpage should take you approximately 3 hours.
  
  Terms of Use: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 License. It is attributed to Stephen Lower.

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3.1.2 Bonding Models  

• Reading: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Models of Chemical Bonding”

  Link: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Models of Chemical Bonding” (HTML)
  
  Instructions: Read this webpage. Keep in mind that these are only models used to depict bonding and may not explain the behavior of every bond.
  
  Reading this webpage should take you approximately 1 hour and 30 minutes.
  
  Terms of Use: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 License. It is attributed to Stephen Lower.

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3.1.3 Covalent Bonds and Lewis Structures  

• Reading: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Lewis Dot Structures and the Octet Rule”

  Link: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Lewis Dot Structures and the Octet Rule” (HTML)
  
  Instructions: Read this webpage. A covalent bond in a molecule, the most commonly occurring type, happens when each atom undergoing bonding contributes one electron to a shared electron pair. This material also introduces resonance structures. Resonance occurs when more than one correct Lewis structure can be drawn.
  
  Reading this webpage should take you approximately 2 hours.
  
  Terms of Use: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 License. It is attributed to Stephen Lower.

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3.1.4 Ionic and Polar Covalent Bonds  

• Web Media: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “Ionic, Covalent, and Metallic Bonds” (YouTube) and “Covalent Networks, Metallic, and Ionic Crystals”

  Links: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “Ionic, Covalent, and Metallic Bonds” (YouTube) and “Covalent Networks, Metallic, and Ionic Crystals” (YouTube)
  
  Instructions: Whatch these lectures to reinforce the concepts covered in the reading assignment. An ionic bond occurs when one atom contributes two electrons to an electron pair and another atom contributes none. Metallic bonding occurs when many electrons occupy a large region of space and their atoms are cationic sites to balance overall charge.
  
  Watching these lectures should take you approximately 30 minutes.
  
  Terms of Use: These videos are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 License. These videos are attributed to Khan Academy.

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• Reading: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Polar Covalence”

  Link: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Polar Covalence” (HTML)
  
  Instructions: Read this webpage. This material utilizes the concept of electronegativity, discussed in subunit 2.4.2. Do you remember the trend? Keep in mind that these bonding categories are models and are used to approximate behavior.
  
  Reading this webpage should take you approximately 1 hour and 30 minutes.
  
  Terms of Use: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 License. It is attributed to Stephen Lower.

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3.1.5 Intermolecular Forces  

• Web Media: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “Van Der Waals Forces”

  Link: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “Van Der Waals Forces” (YouTube)
  
  Instructions: Watch this lecture to reinforce the concepts covered in the reading assignment.
  
  Watching this lecture should take you approximately 15 minutes.
  
  Terms of Use: This video is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 License.  This video is attributed to Khan Academy.

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3.1.5.1 Molecular Interactions  

• Reading: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “States of Matter: Interactions Between Molecular Units”

  Link: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “States of Matter: Interactions Between Molecular Units” (HTML)
  
  Instructions: Read this webpage. The tutorial takes a look beyond the solid-liquid-gaseous states of matter and explores why these states exist. This material explains important molecular interactions other than bonding.
  
  Reading this webpage should take you approximately 1 hour and 30 minutes.
  
  Terms of Use: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 License. It is attributed to Stephen Lower.

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3.1.5.2 Hydrogen Bonding  

• Reading: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “States of Matter: Water and Hydrogen Bonding”

  Link: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “States of Matter: Water and Hydrogen Bonding” (HTML)
  
  Instructions: Read this webpage. This material describes the significance of hydrogen bonding, one of the most important intermolecular forces. Without hydrogen bonding, DNA wouldn’t exist as a double helix!
  
  Reading this webpage should take you approximately 2 hours.
  
  Terms of Use: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 License. It is attributed to Stephen Lower

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3.2 Molecular Structure  

3.2.1 Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory  

• Reading: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Molecular Geometry”

  Link: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Molecular Geometry” (HTML)
  
  Instructions: Read this webpage. Can you explain why carbon dioxide is a linear molecule, while water is bent? Lone pairs of electrons from the Lewis structures become very important here.
  
  Reading this webpage should take you approximately 2 hours.
  
  Terms of Use: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 License. It is attributed to Stephen Lower.

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• Optional Mobile App: Object Enterprises’ VideoScience: “3D Modeling”

  Link: Object Enterprises’ VideoScience (iOS App)
   
  Instructions: Watch the “3D Modeling” video. Although this video does not represent 3D molecular models, it explains how molecules take up space and exist in the real world as more than a Lewis dot structure written on paper. After watching this video, you should understand how to “think in 3D.”
   
  Terms of Use: Please respect the copyright and terms of use displayed on the webpage above.

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3.2.2 Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals  

3.2.2.1 Single Bonds: s and p orbitals  

• Reading: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “The Hybrid Orbital Model”

  Link: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “The Hybrid Orbital Model” (HTML)
  
  Instructions: Read this webpage. The material introduces hybrid orbital theory and explains why atomic orbitals do not explain bonding. Molecules examined here contain single bonds and lone pairs.
  
  Reading this webpage should take you approximately 1 hour and 30 minutes.
  
  Terms of Use: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 License. It is attributed to Stephen Lower.

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3.2.2.2 Multiple Bonds, Resonance, and d orbitals  

• Reading: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Hybrid Orbitals – 2”

  Link: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Hybrid Orbitals – 2” (HTML)
  
  Instructions: Read this webpage. This material is a continuation of hybrid orbital theory, examining multiple bonds, resonance, and d orbitals.
  
  Reading this webpage should take you approximately 1 hour and 30 minutes.
  
  Terms of Use: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 License. It is attributed to Stephen Lower.

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Unit 3 Quiz  

• Assessment: The Saylor Foundation’s “CHEM101 Unit 3 Quiz”

  Link: The Saylor Foundation’s “CHEM101 Unit 3 Quiz” (PDF)
  
  Instructions: Complete this assessment. When you have finished, check your work against the “Unit 3 Quiz Answers” (PDF).
  
  Completing this assessment should take you approximately 2 hours.

  See a broken link? Please let us know!

Unit 4: Chemical Formulas and Equations  

We will now introduce the major tool you will need when solving chemistry problems: the ability to write out formulas and equations. In this unit, you will build upon your understanding of molecules and bonding and begin to name and write compounds. We will then learn to write out and balance chemical equations. Equations enable us to describe chemistry topics in mathematical terms and predict the outcomes of reactions. For example, if we turn 1 kilogram of ice into pure steam at 200 Celsius and sea-level air pressure, what is the volume of steam created? Writing the reaction out in the form of an equation will allow us to precisely calculate the answer!

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4.1 Chemical Formulas  

4.1.1 Empirical and Molecular Formulas  

• Web Media: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “Empirical and Molecular Formulas”

  Links: YouTube: Khan Academy’s
  

  • “Molecular and Empirical Formulas” (YouTube)
  • “Formula From Mass Composition” (YouTube)
  • “Another Mass Composition Problem" (YouTube)
  • “Empirical and Molecular Formulas from Stoichiometry” (YouTube)
  • “Example of Finding Reactant Empirical Formula” (YouTube)
  • “Molecular and Empirical Formulas from Percent Composition” (YouTube)

  Instructions: Watch these six videos first to reinforce the concepts covered in the reading assignment below.
  
  Watching these videos should take you approximately 1 hour and 30 minutes.
  
  Terms of Use: These videos are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 License. These videos are attributed to Khan Academy.

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• Reading: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Chemical Formulas and Their Arithmetic”

  Link: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Chemical Formulas and Their Arithmetic” (HTML)
  
  Instructions: Read this webpage, which explains what information chemical formulas reveal and how to derive chemical equations from experimental data. This is one of the most math intensive units in General Chemistry, but it is not as tricky as it may seem at first. Follow the method.
  
  Reading this webpage should take you approximately 2 hours.
  
  Terms of Use: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 License. It is attributed to Stephen Lower.

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4.1.2 Nomenclature  

• Reading: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Naming Chemical Substances”

  Link: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Naming Chemical Substances” (HTML)
  
  Instructions: Read this webpage. “Nomenclature” is a fancy word for the process of naming compounds. The more you practice systematically naming compounds, the easier it will become. Here, primarily inorganic substance nomenclature is covered. While organic nomenclature is introduced here, it will be covered in more detail in Organic Chemistry.
  
  Reading this webpage should take you approximately 2 hours.
  
  Terms of Use: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 License. It is attributed to Stephen Lower.

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4.2 Stoichiometry and Limiting Reagents  

• Web Media: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “Stoichiometry and Limiting Reagents”

  Link: YouTube: Khan Academy’s
  

  • “Balancing Chemical Equations” (YouTube)
  • “Stoichiometry” (YouTube)
  • “Stoichiometry: Limiting Reagent” (YouTube)
  • “Stoichiometry Example Problem 1” (YouTube)
  • “Stoichiometry Example Problem 2” (YouTube)
  • “Limiting Reactant Example Problem 1” (YouTube)

  Instructions: Watch these six videos first to reinforce the concepts covered in the reading assignment below. Stoichiometric coefficients are numbers of chemical compounds necessary to mass balance a chemical reaction.
  
  Watching these videos should take you approximately 1 hour and 45 minutes.
  
  Terms of Use: These videos are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 License. These videos are attributed to Khan Academy.

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• Reading: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Chemical Equations and Calculations”

  Link: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Chemical Equations and Calculations” (HTML)
  
  Instructions: Read this webpage, which explains what information is given in a balanced chemical equation. Although balancing may seem easy, it can become quite difficult when there are multiple reactants and/or products. As a general rule, begin balancing the chemical equation with a unique atom, or one that is only found in one reactant and one product. Balance hydrogen and oxygen last; they usually present the biggest challenge. You must learn to properly balance equations, as you will need this skill in every chemistry course you take.
  
  Reading this webpage should take you approximately 2 hours.
  
  Terms of Use: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 License. It is attributed to Stephen Lower.

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Unit 4 Quiz  

• Assessment: The Saylor Foundation’s “CHEM101 Unit 4 Quiz”

  Link: The Saylor Foundation’s “CHEM101 Unit 4 Quiz” (PDF)
  
  Instructions: Complete this assessment. When you have finished, check your work against the “Unit 4 Quiz Answers”(PDF).
  
  Completing this assessment should take you approximately 2 hours.

  See a broken link? Please let us know!

Unit 5: States of Matter  

In this unit, we will build upon what we have learned in the previous units in order to learn how matter behaves. Because the behaviors and properties of gases are often described in straightforward equations, we will begin with gases. We will also study the phase diagram, which predicts the state (i.e., solid, liquid, or gas) of any group of molecules at any given temperature and pressure.

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Learning Outcomes   show close


5.1 Gases and Gas Laws  

5.1.1 Gas Phase Properties  

• Reading: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Observable Properties of Gases”

  Link: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Observable Properties of Gases” (HTML)
  
  Instructions: Read this webpage. Understanding how pressure, temperature, and volume of a gas differ from those of forces that exist within solids and liquids will be fundamental for understanding the upcoming subunits of this course.
  
  Reading this webpage should take you approximately 1 hour and 30 minutes.
  
  Terms of Use: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 License. It is attributed to Stephen Lower.

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• Optional Mobile App: Object Enterprises’ VideoScience: “Properties of Gases”

  Link: Object Enterprises’ VideoScience (iOS App)
   
  Instructions: Watch the “Inert Atmospheres: Chromatography Part II,” “Liftoff! Just A Lot of Hot Air,” “Flame Testing Liberated Oxygen,” “Carbon Dioxide Source,” “Cryogenic Pumping,” “Carbon Dioxide Race,” “Flame Testing Liberated Oxygen-Extension I,” “Classroom Barometer,” “A Surfactant,” “Carbon Dioxide Race-Lap II,” “Flame Testing Liberated Oxygen-Extension II,” “Classroom Barometer-Part II,” “Volume of Sublimed Gas,” “Hydrogen Flame Test,” “Layers of Gases,” “Investigating Charles’ Law,” and “Pressure Gradient” videos. Each of these videos explain the behavior of gases as the P, V, and T variables are changed.
   
  Terms of Use: Please respect the copyright and terms of use displayed on the webpage above.

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5.1.2 Ideal Gas Laws  

• Web Media: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “Ideal Gas Equation: PV=nRT” and “Ideal Gas Equation Example 1, 2, 3, 4”

  Links: YouTube: Khan Academy’s

  • “Ideal Gas Equation: PV=nRT” (YouTube)
  • “Ideal Gas Equation Example 1” (YouTube)
  • “Ideal Gas Equation Example 2” (YouTube)
  • “Ideal Gas Equation Example 3” (YouTube)
  • “Ideal Gas Equation Example 4” (YouTube)

  Instructions: Watch these five lectures first to reinforce the concepts covered in the reading assignment below.
  
  Watching these videos should take you approximately 45 minutes.
  
  Terms of Use: These videos are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 License. These videos are attributed to Khan Academy.

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• Reading: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “The Basic Gas Laws”

  Link: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “The Basic Gas Laws” (HTML)
  
  Instructions: Read this webpage. Ideal gas laws are laws that apply to gases that behave “ideally,” when molecules take up no volume and have no attractive forces between one another. In the real world, however, no gas behaves ideally. However, gases are closest to being ideal when they are high-temperature and low-pressure.
  
  Reading this webpage should take you approximately 2 hours. 
  
  Terms of Use: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 License. It is attributed to Stephen Lower.

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5.1.3 Molar Applications and Partial Pressure  

• Web Media: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “Partial Pressure”

  Link: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “Partial Pressure” (YouTube)
  
  Instructions: Watch this video first to reinforce the concepts covered in the reading assignment below. A key concept here is that a mixture has a total pressure that is the sum of its component, or partial, pressures. 
  
  Watching this video should take you approximately 30 minutes.
  
  Terms of Use: This video is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 License. This video is attributed to Khan Academy.

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• Reading: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Moles, Mixtures, and Densities”

  Link: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Moles, Mixtures, and Densities” (HTML)
  
  Instructions: Read this webpage, which covers molar properties of gases and partial pressures. After reading this section, you should understand what happens to scuba divers who suffer from nitrogen narcosis, or “the bends.”
  
  Reading this webpage should take you aproximately 1 hour and 30 minutes.
  
  Terms of Use: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 License. It is attributed to Stephen Lower.

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5.1.4 Kinetic-Molecular Theory of Gas  

• Reading: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Molecules in Motion”

  Link: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Molecules in Motion” (HTML)
  
  Instructions: Read this webpage. Kinetic molecular theory (KMT) explains the properties of gas molecules and their motion. KMT helps explain how radio waves are transmitted, as well as why the sky is blue.
  
  Reading this webpage should take you approximately 2 hours.
  
  Terms of Use: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 License. It is attributed to Stephen Lower.

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5.2 Phase Changes  

5.2.1 Liquid Phase Properties  

• Reading: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Liquids and Their Interfaces”

  Link: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Liquids and Their Interfaces” (HTML)
  
  Instructions: Read this webpage. This material takes a more in-depth look at the properties of liquids, which were previously introduced. Have you ever wondered why all soap bubbles are round? The concepts discussed here will explain.
  
  Reading this webpage should take you approximately 2 hour and 30 minutes.   
  
  Terms of Use: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 License. It is attributed to Stephen Lower.

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• Web Media: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “Specific Heat, Heat of Fusion and Vaporization”, “Chilling Water Problem”, and “Change of State Example”

  Link: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “Specific Heat, Heat of Fusion and Vaporization” (YouTube), “Chilling Water Problem” (YouTube), and “Change of State Example” (YouTube)
  
  Instructions: Watch these three videos. The material covered explains how to calculate the amount of energy associated with both temperature changes and phase changes of a particular substance.  
  
  Watching these videos should take you approximately 45 minutes.
  
  Terms of Use: These videos are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 License. These videos are attributed to Khan Academy.

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• Optional Mobile App: Object Enterprises’ VideoScience: “Bubble Racing”

  Link: Object Enterprises’ VideoScience (iOS App)
   
  Instructions: Watch the “Bubble Racing” video. This video visually explains the concept of viscosity.
   
  Terms of Use: Please respect the copyright and terms of use displayed on the webpage above.

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5.2.2 Solid Phase Properties  

5.2.2.1 Crystalline Solids and the Unit Cell  

• Reading: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Introduction to Crystals”

  Link: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Introduction to Crystals” (HTML)
  
  Instructions: Read this webpage, focusing on the section pertaining to the unit cell. While important, symmetry and spectroscopic terms are only introduced here. More advanced chemistry courses are offered for those who wish to study them further.
  
  Reading this webpage should take you approximately 2 hours.
  
  Terms of Use: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 License. It is attributed to Stephen Lower.

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5.2.2.1.1 Ionic Solids  

• Reading: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “States of Matter”

  Link: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “States of Matter” (HTML)
  
  Instructions: Read this webpage. This material covers the class of solids that form from ions. The energetics of these compounds is also discussed.
  
  Reading this webpage should take you approximately 1 hour and 30 minutes.
  
  Terms of Use: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 License. It is attributed to Stephen Lower.

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5.2.2.1.2 Crystal Packing Structures  

• Reading: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Cubic Crystal Lattices and Close-Packing”

  Link: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Cubic Crystal Lattices and Close-Packing” (HTML)
  
  Instructions: Read this webpage. This material builds on the concept of the unit cell and describes the packing structures of simple cubic lattices. 
  
  Reading this webpage should take you approximately 1 hour and 30 minutes.
  
  Terms of Use: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 License. It is attributed to Stephen Lower.

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5.2.3 Phase Diagrams  

• Reading: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Changes of State”

  Link: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Changes of State” (HTML)
  
  Instructions: Read this webpage. This material describes the dynamic equilibrium between phases and introduces phase diagrams. There are six different processes by which phases can change from one to another. Some will be familiar to you, such as evaporation or freezing; others might be less familiar, like sublimation and deposition.
  
  Reading this webpage should take you approximately 3 hours.
  
  Terms of Use: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 License. It is attributed to Stephen Lower.

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• Web Media: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “Phase Diagrams”

  Links: YouTube: Khan Academy’s

  • “States of Matter” (YouTube)
  • “States of Matter Follow-Up” (YouTube)
  • “Phase Diagrams” (YouTube)
  • “Vapor Pressure” (YouTube)
  • “Vapor Pressure Example” (YouTube)

  Instructions: Watch these five videos to reinforce the concepts covered in the reading assignment. Although we deal everyday with the three primary states of matter—gases, solids, liquids—we are often not familiar with their microscopic interpretations.
  
  Watching these videos should take you approximately 1 hour and 15 minutes.
  
  Terms of Use: These videos are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 License. These videos are attributed to Khan Academy.

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Unit 5 Quiz  

• Assessment: The Saylor Foundation’s “CHEM101 Unit 5 Quiz”

  Link: The Saylor Foundation’s “CHEM101 Unit 5 Quiz” (PDF)
  
  Instructions: Complete this assessment. When you have finished, check your work against the “Unit 5 Quiz Answers” (PDF).
  
  Completing this assessment should take you approximately 1 hour.

  See a broken link? Please let us know!

Unit 6: Thermochemistry and Thermodynamics  

In this unit, we will take a look at energy as it relates to chemistry and chemical reactions. We will study both thermochemistry, which deals with the temperature- and heat-related aspects of chemistry, and thermodynamics, which focuses on the overall energies associated with chemical reactions. Thermodynamics will ultimately lead us to the Gibbs free energy equation, which can tell us whether any chemical reaction is spontaneous or not (i.e., whether it occurs by itself, without any external help).

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6.1 Energy  

6.1.1 Energy Terminology  

• Reading: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Energy, Heat, and Work”

  Link: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Energy, Heat, and Work” (HTML)
  
  Instructions: Read this webpage. Pay close attention to how the system and surroundings are defined; this will determine the direction of energy flow in thermodynamic systems.
  
  Reading this webpage should take you approximately 30 minutes.
  
  Terms of Use: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 License. It is attributed to Stephen Lower.

  See a broken link? Please let us know!

• Optional Mobile App: Object Enterprises’ VideoScience: “Neon Fluid Spiral”

  Link: Object Enterprises’ VideoScience (iOS App)
   
  Instructions: Watch the “Neon Fluid Spiral” video. This video explains how heat energy flows from hot to cold.
   
  Terms of Use: Please respect the copyright and terms of use displayed on the webpage above.

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6.1.2 Chemical Energy and Enthalpy  

• Reading: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Molecules as Energy Carriers and Converters”

  Link: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Molecules as Energy Carriers and Converters” (HTML)
  
  Instructions: Read this webpage. Make sure you can follow the concept map at the bottom of the page, which relates potential and kinetic chemical energy to enthalpy of a system.
  
  Reading this webpage should take you approximately 1 hour.
  
  Terms of Use: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 License. It is attributed to Stephen Lower.

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• Web Media: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “Enthalpy” and “Heat of Formation”

  Links: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “Enthalpy” (YouTube) and “Heat of Formation” (YouTube)
  
  Instructions: Watch these videos to reinforce the concepts covered in the reading assignment. The enthalpy of a system is the energy contained in its chemical bonds plus any pressure-volume work the system can do. 
  
  Watching these videos should take you approximately 30 minutes.
  
  Terms of Use: These videos are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 License. These videos are attributed to Khan Academy.

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6.1.3 Hess’s Law and Calorimetry  

• Reading: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Thermochemistry and Calorimetry”

  Link: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Thermochemistry and Calorimetry” (HTML)
  
  Instructions: Read this webpage. Calorimetry is used to measure the change in enthalpy of reactions in a laboratory setting. Since enthalpy is a state function, Hess’s law is applied to calculate the change in enthalpy from literature values.
  
  Reading this webpage should take you approximately 30 minutes.
  
  Terms of Use: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 License. It is attributed to Stephen Lower.

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• Web Media: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “Hess’s Law and Reaction Enthalpy Change” and “Hess’s Law Example”

  Links: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “Hess’s Law and Reaction Enthalpy Change” (YouTube) and “Hess’s Law Example” (YouTube)
  
  Instructions: Watch these two videos to reinforce the concepts covered in the reading assignment.
  
  Watching these videos should take you approximately 30 minutes.
  
  Terms of Use: These videos are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 License. These videos are attributed to Khan Academy.

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6.1.4 Bond Energy  

• Reading: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Some Applications of Enthalpy and the First Law”

  Link: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Some Applications of Enthalpy and the First Law” (HTML)
  
  Instructions: Read this webpage. Using bond energy to calculate the enthalpy of reaction is not particularly accurate because energies are affected by each molecule’s unique surroundings, such as intermolecular forces. For this reason, energies are only an average across many different reactions.The first law of thermodynamics will be discussed in more detail in subunit 6.2.1.
  
  Reading this webpage should take you approximately 1 hour and 30 minutes.
  
  Terms of Use: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 License. It is attributed to Stephen Lower.

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6.2 Thermodynamics  

6.2.1 The First Law of Thermodynamics  

• Reading: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “The First Law of Thermodynamics”

  Link: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “The First Law of Thermodynamics” (HTML)
  
  Instructions: Read this webpage. The first law of thermodynamics is sometimes referred to as the law of conservation of energy. It states that energy can be neither created nor destroyed, but it may change form. For example, imagine a campfire: the energy is stored in chemical bonds in the wood, and is released as light and heat.
  
  Reading this webpage should take you approximately 1 hour.
  
  Terms of Use: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 License. It is attributed to Stephen Lower.

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• Web Media: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “First Law of Thermodynamics/Internal Energy”

  Link: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “First Law of Thermodynamics/Internal Energy” (YouTube)
  
  Instructions: Watch this lecture to reinforce the concepts covered in the reading assignment. The concepts of exothermic and endothermic reactions are covered.
  
  Watching this video should take you approximately 30 minutes.
  
  Terms of Use: This video is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 License. This video is attributed to Khan Academy.

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6.2.2 The Second Law of Thermodynamics  

• Reading: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “The Availability of Energy”

  Link: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “The Availability of Energy” (HTML)
  
  Instructions: Read this webpage. The second law of thermodynamics deals with heat transfer and also explains why a perpetual motion machine can never exist.
  
  Reading this webpage should take you approximately 2 hours.
  
  Terms of Use: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 License. It is attributed to Stephen Lower.

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6.2.3 Entropy and The Third Law of Thermodynamics  

• Reading: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Entropy Rules!”

  Link: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Entropy Rules!” (HTML)
  
  Instructions: Read this webpage. This material gives a detailed description of entropy and how it relates to the system and surroundings. The third law of thermodynamics deals with a theoretical absolute zero state, which is a physical impossibility.
  
  Reading this webpage should take you approximately 2 hours.
  
  Terms of Use: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 License. It is attributed to Stephen Lower.

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6.2.4 Gibbs Free Energy  

• Reading: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Free Energy”

  Link: Stephen Lower’s General Chemistry Virtual Textbook: “Free Energy” (HTML)
  
  Instructions: Read this webpage. The Gibbs free energy equation predicts whether a reaction will happen spontaneously or not. Gibbs free energy applies to reactions of every magnitude, from water freezing to industrial chemical processes. It is important to note that whereas a reaction may be predicted to be spontaneous, the reaction rate may be very slow however. 
  
  Reading this webpage should take you approximately 3 hours.
  
  Terms of Use: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 2.5 License. It is attributed to Stephen Lower.

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• Web Media: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “Gibbs Free Energy and Spontaneity” and “Gibbs Free Energy Example”

  Links: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “Gibbs Free Energy and Spontaneity” (YouTube) and “Gibbs Free Energy Example” (YouTube)
  
  Instructions: Watch these two videos to reinforce the concepts covered in the reading assignment. If the computed change in Gibbs free energy is negative for a chemical reaction, then the reaction is spontaneous.
  
  Watching these videos should take you approximately 30 minutes.
  
  Terms of Use: These videos are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 License. These videos are attributed to Khan Academy.

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Unit 6 Quiz  

• Assessment: The Saylor Foundation’s “CHEM101 Unit 6 Quiz”

  Link: The Saylor Foundation’s “CHEM101 Unit 6 Quiz” (PDF)
  
  Instructions: Complete this assessment. When you have finished, check your work against the “Unit 6 Quiz Answers” (PDF).
  
  Completing this assessment should take you approximately 1 hour.

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Final Exam  

• Optional Mobile App: Upward Mobility’s CLEP Chemistry Exam Prep

  Link: Upward Mobility’s CLEP Chemistry Exam Prep (iOS App) or Upward Mobility’s CLEP Chemistry Exam Prep (Android App)
   
  Instructions: Note that there are costs associated with both of these apps, which is why they are optional. No quiz or exam questions will be derived from this material, but they are still useful supplementary resources, especially if you plan to take the College-Level Examination Program (CLEP) exam for Chemistry. Once you’ve downloaded the app, answer questions 2, 4, 6, 7, 10, 11, 16, 19, 21-27, 29-33, 36, 38, 41, 43, 46, 50, 59, 61-64, 66, 67, 70, 71, 76-83, 85, 86, 88-92, 94, 95, 97, 102, 104, 107-109, 113, 114, 116-118, 121, 124, 127-130, 132-136, 138-140, 147, 151, 152, 154-157, and 160 in both study and test mode. If you will be taking the CLEP exam, it is recommended that you retake the quiz as needed until you understand the material behind all 85 questions.
   
  Terms of Use: Please respect the copyright and terms of use displayed on the webpage above.

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• Final Exam: The Saylor Foundation’s “CHEM101 Final Exam”

  Link: The Saylor Foundation’s “CHEM101 Final Exam”
  
  Instructions: You must be logged into your Saylor Foundation School account in order to access this exam.  If you do not yet have an account, you will be able to create one, free of charge, after clicking the link. 

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