HIST351: Islam, The Middle East, and The West « Saylor.org – Free Online Courses Built by Professors

Islam, The Middle East, and The West

Purpose of Course show close

This course will introduce you to the history of the Middle East from the rise of Islam to the twenty-first century. The course will emphasize the encounters and exchanges between the Islamic world and the West. It will be structured chronologically—each unit will focus on the emergence of a particular Middle Eastern society or empire during a specific time period. Each unit will include representative primary-source documents that illustrate important overarching political, economic, and social themes, such as the emergence of Islam in the seventh century, conflicts between Islamic and Christian peoples during the Crusades, European domination of Muslim territories in the nineteenth century, independence movements and the rise of nationalism in the 1900s, and the formation of Islamic fundamentalist groups and anti-Western sentiment in the latter twentieth century. By the end of the course, you will understand how Islam became a sophisticated and far-reaching civilization and how conflicts with the West shaped the development of the Middle East from the medieval period to the present day.

Learning Outcomes show close

Upon successful completion of this course, students will be able to:

Identify and describe the nature of pre-Islamic society, culture, and religion. They will also be able to describe the subsequent rise of the prophet Muhammad and his monotheistic religion, Islam.
Identify and describe the elements of Islamic law, religious texts and practices, and belief systems.
Identify and describe the rise of the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties in the Middle East. Students will also be able to compare and contrast the two empires.
Identify and describe the emergence of the Umayyad dynasty in Spain. Students will also be able to analyze the conflicts between Muslims and Christians on the Iberian Peninsula.
Identify and describe the Crusades. They will be able to describe both Muslim and Christian perceptions of the holy wars.
Identify and describe the impact of the Mongol invasions on the Middle East.
Compare and contrast the Ottoman and Safavid empires.
Analyze the decline of the Ottoman Empire and the beginning of European imperialism/domination of the Middle East in the 1800s.
Identify and describe how and why European powers garnered increased spheres of influence after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire and the end of World War I.
Analyze and describe the rise of resistance and independence movements in the Middle East.
Identify and describe the rise of Islamic nationalism and the emergence of violent anti-Western sentiment.
Analyze (and synthesize) the relationship between the Middle East and the West between the 600s and the present day.
Analyze and interpret primary source documents that elucidate the exchanges and conflicts between the Islamic world and the West over time.

Course Requirements show close

In order to take this course you must:

√    Have access to a computer.

√    Have continuous broadband Internet access.

√    Have the ability/permission to install plug-ins or software (e.g., Adobe Reader or Flash).

√    Have the ability to download and save files and documents to a computer.

√    Have the ability to open Microsoft files and documents (.doc, .ppt, .xls, etc.).

√    Be competent in the English language.

√    Have read the Saylor Student Handbook.

Preliminary Information

Content Outline

Reading: Washington State University: Richard Hooker, et al’s World Civilizations: Islam: “Islam”
Link: Washington State University: Richard Hooker, et al’s World Civilizations: Islam: “Islam” (HTML)

Instructions: Please click on the link above, go to the left hand side of the page and click on “Contents,” and then click on the “Islam” link. Read the entirety of this webpage, which will introduce you to Islam and some of its core tenets.

Terms of Use: Please respect the copyright and terms of use displayed on the webpage above.
The Saylor Foundation does not yet have materials for this portion of the course. If you are interested in contributing your content to fill this gap or aware of a resource that could be used here, please submit it here.
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Reading: Georgetown University: John Voll’s Encyclopedia of Politics and Religion, ed. Robert Wuthnow: “Islam” (Hosted by the Congressional Quarterly)
Link: Georgetown University: John Voll’s Encyclopedia of Politics and Religion, ed. Robert Wuthnow: “Islam” (HTML) (Hosted by the Congressional Quarterly)

Instructions: Please read this webpage, which will introduce you to many of the major events that this course will deal explore.

Terms of Use: Please respect the copyright and terms of use displayed on the webpage above.
See a broken link? Please let us know!

Unit Outline show close

1 Islamic Civilization
1.1 Pre-Islamic Arabia
1.1.1 Bedouin Nomads
1.1.2 Bedouin Clans
1.1.3 Towns and Trade
1.1.4 Society and Family
1.1.5 Religion
1.2 Origins of Islam
1.2.1 Pressures from Byzantium and the Sassanid Empire
1.2.2 Monotheism of Christianity and Judaism
1.2.3 Rise of Muhammad
1.2.4 Converts and Conflicts

2 Islamic Society and Faith
2.1 Belief System
2.1.1 Allah
2.1.2 Muhammad and Other Prophets
2.1.3 The Qur’an
2.2 Religious Practices
2.2.1 Profession of Faith
2.2.2 Prayer
2.2.3 Fasting
2.2.4 Pilgrimage to Mecca
2.3 Texts and Laws
2.3.1 The Qur’an
2.3.2 Fiqh and Sharia
2.3.3 Sufism
2.4 Society and Culture
2.4.1 Philosophy and Art
2.4.2 Architecture
2.4.3 Politics
2.4.4 Women and Family

3 Arab Conquests and the Rise of the Caliphate
3.1 The Rise of the Umayyads
3.1.1 Muhammad’s Successors and Military Campaigns
3.1.2 Unification and Defeat of Bedouin Clans
3.1.3 Motives for Conquest
3.1.4 Attacks on the Sassanids and Byzantium
3.2 The Umayyad Age
3.2.1 Internal Divisions: the Sunni-Shi’a Spilt
3.2.2 Expansion into India and the Mediterranean
3.2.3 Non-Muslim Peoples
3.2.4 Decline of the Umayyads
3.3 The Abbasids
3.3.1 Rebellion against the Umayyads
3.3.2 Abu Al-Abbas and Shi’ite Factions
3.3.3 Abbasid Rulers and Bureaucracy
3.3.4 Islamic Conversion
3.3.5 Afro-Eurasian Trade
3.3.6 Slaves and Peasants
3.3.7 Islamic Art and Learning
3.4 The Later Abbasids
3.4.1 Increasing Disunity
3.4.2 Opulence and Military Disputes
3.4.3 Heavy Taxes
3.4.4 Invasion of Buyids of Persia
3.4.5 Rise of the Seljuk Turks
3.5 Abbasid Society
3.5.1 Persian Language
3.5.2 Literature and Poetry
3.5.3 Scientific Advancements
3.5.4 Religion and Expansion

4 The Expansion of Islam into Europe
4.1 The Iberian Peninsula
4.1.1 Conquest of Southern Spain
4.1.2 Visigoths in Hispania
4.1.3 Al-Andalus
4.1.4 Muslim Incursions in France and Sicily
4.2 Caliphate of Cordoba
4.2.1 Divisions within the Umayyads in Arabia
4.2.2 Establishment of the Caliphate
4.2.3 Trade and Prosperity
4.2.4 Conflict and Division
4.3 The Berber Dynasty
4.3.1 Decline of the Caliphate
4.3.2 Taifas

5 The Crusades
5.1 Causes
5.1.1 Violence in the Holy Land
5.1.2 Christianization of Europe
5.1.3 Muslims in Iberia
5.1.4 Muslim Encroachments
5.1.5 Breakdown of Carolingian Empire
5.2 Goals of the Crusades
5.2.1 Recapturing Jerusalem from Muslim Control
5.3 Impact of the Crusades
5.3.1 Papal Authority and Religious Piety
5.3.2 Unity Among European Christians
5.3.3 Massacre of Jews and Muslims
5.3.4 Fall of Constantinople
5.3.5 Rift between Islam and Christendom
5.3.6 Trade

6 The Mongol Invasions
6.1 Rise of the Mongols
6.1.1 Chinggis Khan
6.1.2 The Nomadic Mongols
6.1.3 Asian Conquests
6.2 The Mongols in the Middle East
6.2.1 Conquest of the Abbasids
6.2.2 The Battle of Baghdad
6.2.3 Suppression of the Seljuk Turks
6.2.4 Establishment of the Ilkhanate
6.2.5 Conversion to Islam
6.2.6 End of Mongol Rule

8 European Challenges and the Ottoman Empire
8.1 Ottoman Empire in the 1800s
8.1.1 “Sick Man of Europe”
8.1.2 Financial Control by European Powers
8.2 European Dominion of the Ottoman Empire
8.2.1 French Annexation of Algeria and Tunisia
8.2.2 British Occupation of Egypt
8.2.3 British Control of Persian Gulf
8.2.4 French Influence in Lebanon and Syria
8.2.5 Italy in Libya and the Dodecanese Islands
8.3 Reforms in the Middle East
8.3.1 The Young Turks

9 The Islamic World in an Age of European Domination
9.1 The End of the Ottoman Empire
9.1.1 Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary
9.1.2 World War I
9.1.3 The Arab Revolt
9.1.4 Defeat of the Ottomans in 1918
9.1.5 Rise of Kemal Ataturk and the Europeanization of Turkey
9.2 Partitioning the Middle East
9.2.1 The Sykes-Picot Agreement
9.2.2 The Balfour Declaration
9.2.3 British Mandated Territories
9.2.4 French Mandated Territories
9.2.5 Discovery of Oil

10 Nationalism and Independence Movements
10.1 Revolts Against European Domination
10.2 World War II
10.2.1 The Suez Canal
10.2.2 The Anglo-Iraqi War
10.2.3 The Allied Invasion of Syria-Lebanon
10.2.4 The Anglo-Soviet Invasion of Iran
10.3 The Cold War in the Middle East
10.3.1 Egypt and the First Revolution
10.3.2 Syria and the Battle of Maysalun
10.3.3 Iraqi Revolt Against the British
10.3.4 Arab Nationalism vs. Zionism
10.4 Postwar Independence
10.4.1 Iran
10.4.2 Partitioning of Palestine
10.4.3 The Arab-Israeli War of 1948
10.4.4 The Six Day War (June 1967)

11 The Islamic Revolution, Terrorism, and the West
11.1 The Islamic Revolution of 1979
11.1.1 Overthrow of Iran’s Monarchy
11.1.2 An Islamic Republic
11.1.3 Islamic Fundamentalism
11.1.4 The Iran-Iraq War
11.2 The Israeli-Palestinian Conflict Since 1980
11.2.1 Hezbollah
11.2.2 Al Qaeda
11.2.3 The Taliban
11.3 Terrorism and Western Responses
11.3.1 September 11 Attacks
11.3.2 “War on Terror”
11.3.3 Invasion of Iraq
11.3.4 War in Afghanistan

12 Final Exam

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Unit 1: Islamic Civilization

Islam first arrived on the Arabian Peninsula in the seventh century. But before its appearance, the tribal societies living on the Arabian Peninsula—the Bedouin—embraced polytheistic or animistic religious beliefs. Bedouin clans, the nomadic societies built around goat and camel herding, populated the desert. Towns and cities, including Mecca, were dependent upon alliances with the neighboring Bedouin tribes. When Muhammad began preaching his “revelations” in the 600s, he encountered hostility and criticism from many Arab communities. However, the Bedouin eventually became enthusiastic converts to Islam—a universalizing faith that united disparate Arab tribes.

In this unit, we will study the culture and religion of the Bedouin tribes of Arabia. We will then examine the effects that Muhammad’s conversion efforts had among the Bedouin in the seventh century.

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Reading: Washington State University: Richard Hooker, et al’s World Civilizations: Islam: “Pre-Islamic Arabic Culture”
Link: Washington State University: Richard Hooker, et al’s World Civilizations: Islam: “Pre-Islamic Arabic Culture” (HTML)

Instructions: Please read the entirety of this webpage, which offers a brief overview of the pre-Islamic Middle East and touches on many subsections 1.1.1 through 1.1.5.

Terms of Use: Please respect the copyright and terms of use displayed on the webpage above.
The Saylor Foundation does not yet have materials for this portion of the course. If you are interested in contributing your content to fill this gap or aware of a resource that could be used here, please submit it here.
Submit Materials
Reading: The University of Calgary: The Applied History Research Group’s The Islamic World to 1600: “The Roman and Byzantine Empires,” “Ancient Persia,” “The Sassanid Empire,” and “The Arabian Peninsula.”
Link: The University of Calgary: The Applied History Research Group’s The Islamic World to 1600: “The Roman and Byzantine Empires,” “Ancient Persia,” “Sassanid Empire,” and “Arabian Peninsula” (All HTML)

Instructions: Please read the entirety of this webpage, which offers a brief overview of the Roman and Byzantine Empires and their relationship to the pre-Islamic Middle East as well as short political histories of the Persian and Sassanid empires. You can toggle between chapters by clicking on the rightward facing arrow at the bottom of each page.

Terms of Use: Please respect the copyright and terms of use displayed on the webpage above.
See a broken link? Please let us know!

1.1 Pre-Islamic Arabia

Reading: Wikipedia: “Pre-Islamic Arabia”
Link: Wikipedia: “Pre-Islamic Arabia” (PDF)

Also available in:
iBook

Instructions: Please read the entirety of this entry in order to get a better understanding of Pre-Islamic Arabia. This link addresses subsections 1.1.1 through 1.1.5.

Terms of Use: The Wikipedia article above is released under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share-Alike License 3.0 (HTML). You can find the original version of this article here (HTML).
See a broken link? Please let us know!

1.1.1 Bedouin Nomads

Reading: F.E. Johnson’s translation of The Hanged Poems
Link: SacredTexts.com: F.E. Johnson’s translation of “The Hanged Poems” (PDF)

Also available in:
Kindle ($3.99)
Google Books

Instructions: Please read the entirety of this webpage (“Introduction,” “The Poem of Imru-ul-Quais,” “The Poem of Antar,” and “The Poem of Zuhair”); these poems will serve as excellent introductions to pre-Islamic Arab poetry.

Note on the text: The emergence of Islam in the seventh century meant that the Arabic language replaced many ethnic languages and regional dialects across the Middle East. However, while the Islamic text of the Qur’an is thought to be one of the first texts written in Arabic, many examples of Arabic literature predated it. The “hanged poems,” for example, covered the walls of the “ka-aba,” or cubic temple in Mecca, before the establishment of a widespread Muslim order.

Terms of Use: This material is part of the public domain.
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1.1.2 Bedouin Clans

1.1.3 Towns and Trade

1.1.4 Society and Family

1.1.5 Religion

1.2 Origins of Islam

Reading: Washington State University: Richard Hooker, et al’s World Civilizations: Islam: “Muhammad, Messenger of God”
Link: Washington State University: Richard Hooker, et al’s World Civilizations: Islam: “Muhammad, Messenger of God” (HTML)

Instructions: Please read the entirety of this webpage, which summarizes Muhammad’s life and examines the challenges his early followers faced. This source addresses the subpoints below.

Terms of Use: Please respect the copyright and terms of use displayed on the webpage above.

The Saylor Foundation does not yet have materials for this portion of the course. If you are interested in contributing your content to fill this gap or aware of a resource that could be used here, please submit it here.
Submit Materials
Web Media: PBS’s Islam: Empire of Faith: “Muhammad”
Link: PBS’s Islam: Empire of Faith: “Muhammad” (YouTube)

Instructions: Please watch the entire 55-minute documentary for a comprehensive introduction to Islam and its founder, the prophet Muhammad. This documentary explores subsections 1.2.1 through 1.2.4 as well as 2.1.1 through 2.3.1.

Terms of Use: Please respect the copyright and terms of use displayed on the webpage above.
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1.2.1 Pressures from Byzantium and the Sassanid Empire

1.2.2 Monotheism of Christianity and Judaism

1.2.3 Rise of Muhammad

1.2.4 Converts and Conflicts

Unit 2: Islamic Society and Faith

Islam became an established religion in the Middle East after the death of the Prophet Muhammad in 632 C.E. Although Muhammad originally worked as a merchant in Mecca, he soon became disenchanted with society and retreated to a cave for meditation. It was there, at the age of 40, that Muhammad began to receive his first revelations from God. These revelations formed the basis of the Qur’an—the main religious text on which the Islamic faith is based. Muhammad began preaching his revelations to the tribes of the Arabian Peninsula; although he met with initial hostility, many of the tribes had converted to Islam by the time of Muhammad’s death. His successors—the “four rightly guided caliphs”—continued conversion efforts during the Umayyad dynasty. Muslims consider Muhammad’s revelations to be the true word of God (Allah). These revelations form the basis of Islamic law, religious practices, and philosophy.

In this unit, we will consider the historical context surrounding the emergence of Islam in Arabia. We will also study how Islam became a widely embraced religion that formed the basis of society in the Middle East.

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Reading: Wikibooks’ History of Islam: “Early Islam”
Link: Wikibooks’ History of Islam: “Early Islam” (PDF)

Instructions: Please read the entirety of the webpage, which will give you a brief introduction to Islam’s early history and touch on subsections 2.1.1 through 2.3.1.

Terms of Use: The Wikipedia article above is released under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share-Alike License 3.0 (HTML). You can find the original version of this article here (HTML).
See a broken link? Please let us know!

2.1 Belief System

2.1.1 Allah

2.1.2 Muhammad and Other Prophets

2.1.3 The Qur’an

Reading: Washington State University: Richard Hooker, et al’s World Civilizations: Islam: “The Qur’an”
Link: Washington State University: Richard Hooker, et al’s World Civilizations: Islam: “The Qur'an” (HTML)

Instructions: Please read the entirety of this webpage, which will introduce you to Islam’s holy book, the Qur’an.

Terms of Use: Please respect the copyright and terms of use displayed on the webpage above.
The Saylor Foundation does not yet have materials for this portion of the course. If you are interested in contributing your content to fill this gap or aware of a resource that could be used here, please submit it here.
Submit Materials

2.2 Religious Practices

Reading: Wikipedia: “Five Pillars of Islam”
Link: Wikipedia: “Five Pillars of Islam” (PDF)

Instructions: Please read the entirety of this entry in order to get a better understanding of Pre-Islamic Arabia. This link addresses subsections 2.2.1 through 2.2.4.

Terms of Use: The Wikipedia article above is released under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share-Alike License 3.0 (HTML). You can find the original version of this article here (HTML).
See a broken link? Please let us know!

2.2.1 Profession of Faith

2.2.2 Prayer

2.2.3 Fasting

2.2.4 Pilgrimage to Mecca

2.3 Texts and Laws

2.3.1 The Qur’an

Reading: Washington State University: Richard Hooker, et al’s World Civilizations: Islam: “The Qur’an (Selections)”
Link: Washington State University: Richard Hooker, et al’s World Civilizations: Islam: “The Qur’an (Selections)” (HTML)

Instructions: Please read the entirety of this webpage, which includes selections from the Qur’an (Islam’s holy book) that touch on a variety of basic concepts in Islam.

Note on the Text: The Qur’an—translated to mean “the recitation”—is the central religious text of Islam. Muslims regard the Qur’an as the main miracle of Mohammed, as proof of his prophethood, and as a series of divine messages.

Terms of Use: Please respect the copyright and terms of use displayed on the webpage above.
The Saylor Foundation does not yet have materials for this portion of the course. If you are interested in contributing your content to fill this gap or aware of a resource that could be used here, please submit it here.
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2.3.2 Fiqh and Sharia

Reading: Wikipedia: “Fiqh” and “Sharia”
Link: Wikipedia: “Fiqh” (PDF) and “Sharia” (PDF)

Sharia also available in:
iBook

Instructions: Please read both of these Wikipedia entries to better comprehend Islamic jurisprudence.

Terms of Use: The Wikipedia article above is released under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share-Alike License 3.0 (HTML). You can find the original version of this article here (HTML) and here (HTML).
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2.3.3 Sufism

Lecture: iTunesU: The Open University: Islam in the West, Lecture 9, “What is Sufism?”
Link: iTunesU: The Open University: Islam in the West, Lecture 9, “What is Sufism?” (iTunes U)

Instructions: Choose “What is Sufism” from the right hand menu. Please listen to the entire 4:47 minute clip. Though it is primarily an analysis of contemporary Sufism, this short lecture will introduce you to the various ways in which Sufism is different from “mainstream” Islam.

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2.4 Society and Culture

Reading: The University of Calgary: The Applied History Research Group’s The Islamic World to 1600: The Arts, Learning, and Knowledge: “Introduction,” “The Arts,” and “Islam and Knowledge.”
Link: The University of Calgary: The Applied History Reaserch Group’s The Islamic World to 1600: The Arts, Learning, and Knowledge: “Introduction,” (HTML) “The Arts,” (HTML) and “Islam and Knowledge.” (HTML)

Instructions: Please read the entirety of this webpage, which explores a variety of Islamic architectural models and places Islamic architectural styles in a broader historical context. Please click on the various links located in the column on the left-hand side. This webpage addresses subsections 2.4.1 through 2.4.4.

Terms of Use: Please respect the copyright and terms of use displayed on the webpage above.
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2.4.1 Philosophy and Art

2.4.2 Architecture

2.4.3 Politics

2.4.4 Women and Family

Unit 3: Arab Conquests and the Rise of the Caliphate

After being united under the aegis of Islam, the Arabs—known as the Umayyads—began military campaigns outside of their realm. In the mid-seventh century, Muslim armies began invading parts of the increasingly vulnerable Sassanid and Byzantine empires, claiming land in what is now Egypt, Syria, and Palestine. In fact, so powerful were the Islamic army and navy that Byzantium was permanently crippled by the invasions. The Umayyads went on to conquer northern Africa and invade India, building a kingdom that exceeded the size of the Roman Empire. But despite their success abroad, the Umayyads suffered a period of discord at home: a succession dispute resulted in a division of Muslims into Sunni and Shi’a factions. While the Sunnis retained temporary control of the caliphate, a Shi’ite uprising in 750 C.E. toppled the Umayyads and established Abbasid rule. Under the Abbasids, mass conversion to Islam was encouraged, as was a dynamic Afro-Eurasian trade network. The Abbasids also established Persian as the official language, and encouraged the flowering of Islamic culture.

In this unit, we will study how the unity of the Arab world under Islam allowed for the expansion of the Umayyad Empire in the 600s. We will also consider the causes for the Sunni-Shi’a split and the emergence of the Abbasid dynasty.

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Reading: Washington State University: Richard Hooker, et al’s World Civilizations: Islam: “The Caliphate”
Link: Washington State University: Richard Hooker, et al’s World Civilizations: Islam: “The Caliphate” (HTML)

Instructions: Please read the entirety of this webpage, which will introduce you to important events in Islamic history between Muhammad’s death and the rise of the Umayyads.

Terms of Use: Please respect the copyright and terms of use displayed on the webpage above.
The Saylor Foundation does not yet have materials for this portion of the course. If you are interested in contributing your content to fill this gap or aware of a resource that could be used here, please submit it here.
Submit Materials
Reading: The University of Calgary: The Applied History Research Group’s The Islamic World to 1600: The Caliphate and the First Islamic Dynasty: “Introduction,” “Abu Bakr (632-34),” “Umar (634-44),” “Uthman (644-56),” “Ali (656-61),” “The Umayyad Dynasty (661-75),” “Umayyad Politics and Administration,” “Umayyad Territorial Expansion,” “Collapse of the Umayyad Dynasty.”
Link: The University of Calgary: The Applied History Reaserch Group’s The Islamic World to 1600: The Caliphate and the First Islamic Dynasty: “Introduction,” “Abu Bakr (632-34),” “Umar (634-44),” and “Uthman (644-56),” “Ali (656-61),” “The Umayyad Dynasty,” “Umayyad Politics and Administration,” “Umayyad Territorial Expansion,” and “Collapse of the Umayyad Dynasty”

Note: All websites are in HTML format.

Instructions: Please read the entirety of the linked webpages above, which offer a brief overview of early Islamic political history that addresses subsections 3.1 through 3.2. You can toggle between chapters by using the links on the left-hand side of the webpage.

Terms of Use: Please respect the copyright and terms of use displayed on the webpage above.
See a broken link? Please let us know!
Web Media: PBS’s Islam: Empire of Faith: “The Awakening”
Link: PBS’s Islam: Empire of Faith: “The Awakening” (YouTube)

Instructions: Please watch the entire 55-minute documentary for a comprehensive overview of the caliphate period of Islamic history. This documentary covers subsections 3.1 though 3.4.

Terms of Use: Please respect the copyright and terms of use displayed on the webpage above.

See a broken link? Please let us know!

3.1 The Rise of the Umayyads

Reading: Washington State University: Richard Hooker, et al’s World Civilizations: Islam: “Civil War & The Umayyads”
Link: Washington State University: Richard Hooker, et al’s World Civilizations: Islam: “Civil War & The Umayyads” (HTML)

Instructions: Please read the entirety of this webpage, which will introduce you to a critical turning point in Islamic history—namely, the rise of the Umayyad caliphate. This link addresses subsections 3.1.1 through 3.1.4. as well as subpoint 3.2.4.

Terms of Use: Please respect the copyright and terms of use displayed on the webpage above.
The Saylor Foundation does not yet have materials for this portion of the course. If you are interested in contributing your content to fill this gap or aware of a resource that could be used here, please submit it here.
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3.1.1 Muhammad’s Successors and Military Campaigns

3.1.2 Unification and Defeat of Bedouin Clans

3.1.3 Motives for Conquest

3.1.4 Attacks on the Sassanids and Byzantium

3.2 The Umayyad Age

3.2.1 Internal Divisions: the Sunni-Shi’a Spilt

Reading: Washington State University: Richard Hooker, et al’s World Civilizations: Islam: “Shi’a”
Link: Washington State University: Richard Hooker, et al’s World Civilizations: Islam: “Shi’a” (HTML)

Instructions: Please read the entirety of this webpage, which will introduce you to one of, if not the, most important events in Islamic history: the Sunni/Shi’a schism.

Terms of Use: Please respect the copyright and terms of use displayed on the webpage above.
The Saylor Foundation does not yet have materials for this portion of the course. If you are interested in contributing your content to fill this gap or aware of a resource that could be used here, please submit it here.
Submit Materials
Lecture: iTunesU: University of Wisconsin–Madison & Wisconsin Public Radio: “Sunni/Shi’a Conflict”
Link: iTunesU: University of Wisconsin–Madison & Wisconsin Public Radio: “Sunni/Shi'a Conflict” (iTunes U)

Instructions: Please listen to the entire 55-minute discussion. Though it is primarily current-events oriented, this program provides an excellent analysis of the history and enduring impact of the Sunni/Shi’a split to the history of Islam.

Terms of Use: Please respect the copyright and terms of use displayed on the webpage above.
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3.2.2 Expansion into India and the Mediterranean

Reading: The Saylor Foundation's "Expansion into India and the Mediterranean"
Link: The Saylor Foundation's "Expansion into India and the Mediterranean" (PDF)

Instructions: Please read the linked material.
See a broken link? Please let us know!

3.2.3 Non-Muslim Peoples

Reading: The Saylor Foundation's "Non-Muslim Peoples"
Link: The Saylor Foundation's "Non-Muslim Peoples” (PDF)

Instructions: Please read the linked material.
See a broken link? Please let us know!

3.2.4 Decline of the Umayyads

3.3 The Abbasids

Reading: Washington State University: Richard Hooker, et al’s World Civilizations: Islam: “The Abassid Dynasty”
Link: Washington State University: Richard Hooker, et al’s World Civilizations: Islam: “The Abbasid Dynasty” (HTML)

Instructions: Please read the entirety of this webpage, which will introduce you to important events in Islamic history between Muhammad’s death and the rise of the Umayyads.

Terms of Use: Please respect the copyright and terms of use displayed on the webpage above.
The Saylor Foundation does not yet have materials for this portion of the course. If you are interested in contributing your content to fill this gap or aware of a resource that could be used here, please submit it here.
Submit Materials
Reading: The University of Calgary: The Applied History Research Group’s The Islamic World to 1600: Fractured Caliphate and the Regional Dynasties: “Introduction,” “The Abbasid Dynasty,” Spain and the Maghrib,” “Egypt,” “West Africa,” “Central Asia,” “Southeast Asia,” “China,” “Chapter Summary.”
Link: The University of Calgary: The Applied History Research Group’s The Islamic World to 1600: Fractured Caliphate and the Regional Dynasties:“Introduction,” “The Abbasid Dynasty,” “Spain and the Maghrib,” “Egypt,” “West Africa,” “Central Asia,” “China,” “Chapter Summary”

Note: All websites are in HTML format.

Instructions: Please read the entirety of this webpage, which offers a brief overview of the Abbasid Dynasty as well as Islam’s expansion into North Africa and Central Asia. You can toggle between chapters by using the links on the left-hand side of the webpage. These links address subsections 3.3.1 through 3.5.4 as well as 4.1.1 through 4.3.2.

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3.3.1 Rebellion against the Umayyads

3.3.2 Abu Al-Abbas and Shi’ite Factions

3.3.3 Abbasid Rulers and Bureaucracy

3.3.4 Islamic Conversion

3.3.5 Afro-Eurasian Trade

3.3.6 Slaves and Peasants

3.3.7 Islamic Art and Learning

3.4 The Later Abbasids

3.4.1 Increasing Disunity

3.4.2 Opulence and Military Disputes

3.4.3 Heavy Taxes

3.4.4 Invasion of Buyids of Persia

3.4.5 Rise of the Seljuk Turks

3.5 Abbasid Society

3.5.1 Persian Language

3.5.2 Literature and Poetry

3.5.3 Scientific Advancements

3.5.4 Religion and Expansion

Unit 4: The Expansion of Islam into Europe

When a Shi’a leader—Abu al-Abbas—usurped power from the reigning Sunni caliph in 750 C.E., the Umayyad era officially came to a close. While al-Abbas tried to execute all members of the Sunni Umayyads, one leader escaped to the Iberian Peninsula, where he established a new Umayyad kingdom. However, Abd ar-Rahman I was not the first Muslim to invade Spain; Muslim Berbers had overthrown the Visigoths and established the kingdom of Al-Andalus in the early eighth century. Still, the Umayyads in Spain—known as the Caliphate of Cordoba—retained power until the 1000s. With the decline of the Caliphate, several smaller kingdoms, called “taifas,” claimed control over southern Spain. It was not until 1492, when the Christian monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella declared a holy war against the Spanish Muslims did Muslim control of the region come to an end.

In this unit, we will study the emergence of a new Umayyad imperium in southern Spain in the 700s. We will also examine the decline of the Umayyad caliphate and the rise of independent Berber kingdoms that became locked in conflict with Christian Spain.

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Reading: Unity Productions Foundation/Gardner Films: Cities of Light: The Rise and Fall of Islamic Spain: “The Other 1492,” “Diversity Abounds Under Muslim Rule,” “ The Transfer of Knowledge From Islamic Spain to Europe,” “Sumptuous Living.”
Link: Unity Productions Foundation/Gardner Films: Cities of Light: The Rise and Fall of Islamic Spain: Greg Noakes' “The Other 1492,” “Diversity Abounds Under Muslim Rule,” “The Transfer of Knowledge from Islamic Spain to Europe,” “Sumptuous Living.”

Note: All websites are in HTML format.

Instructions: The readings consist of the four links below the heading "Islamic Spain". Please read the entirety of these webpages as they present transcripts of an excellent documentary on Islamic Spain. These pages contain information addressing subsections 4.1 through 4.3.

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4.1 The Iberian Peninsula

Reading: Wikipedia: “Islam in Spain”
Link: Wikipedia:“Islam in Spain” (PDF)

Instructions: Please read the entirety of this entry to get a broad overview of Muslim Spain, 711-1492.

Terms of Use: The Wikipedia article above is released under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share-Alike License 3.0 (HTML). You can find the original version of this article here (HTML).
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Reading: Wikipedia: “Al-Andaulus”
Link: Wikipedia: “Al-Andalus” (PDF)

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Instructions: Please read the entirety of this entry in order to get a sense of Muslim Spain, 711-1492.

Terms of Use: The Wikipedia article above is released under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share-Alike License 3.0 (HTML). You can find the original version of this article here (HTML).
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4.1.1 Conquest of Southern Spain

4.1.2 Visigoths in Hispania

4.1.3 Al-Andalus

4.1.4 Muslim Incursions in France and Sicily

4.2 Caliphate of Cordoba

4.2.1 Divisions within the Umayyads in Arabia

4.2.2 Establishment of the Caliphate

4.2.3 Trade and Prosperity

4.2.4 Conflict and Division

4.3 The Berber Dynasty

Reading: The Saylor Foundation's "The Berber Dynasty"
Link: The Saylor Foundation's "The Berber Dynasty" (PDF)

Instructions: Please read the linked material.
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4.3.1 Decline of the Caliphate

4.3.2 Taifas

Reading: Fordham University: Paul Halsall’s The Medieval Sourcebook: “Poetry of the Spanish Moors, Selections”
Link: Fordham University: Paul Halsall’s The Medieval Sourcebook: “Poetry of the Spanish Moors, Selections” (PDF)

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Instructions: Please read the entirety of this webpage, which offers a few examples of medieval Spanish Muslim poetry.

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Unit 5: The Crusades

The Crusades—a series of religious wars launched to restore Christian control of the Holy Land—began in 1096 and were the most conspicuous sign of the rise and expansion of Christian Europe. The first crusade resulted in the division of Syria and Palestine into smaller Christian kingdoms, although subsequent crusades had less successful outcomes. Under the Muslim ruler Saladin, most of the Holy Land was reclaimed for Islam by the late 1100s; by 1251, Muslim armies had expelled all Christian kingdoms. The impact of the Crusades was twofold: first, they established a precedent for the rift between Western Christendom and the Middle Eastern Muslim world and second, they intensified commercial contact between the two regions. While Europeans were interested in obtaining textiles, scientific knowledge, and medicine from the Muslim world, Muslims had little interest in European goods or culture.

In this unit, we will examine the causes and effects of the European claim to the Muslim-dominated Holy Land. We will also study the impact of the Crusades, which led to the fall of Byzantium and increased anti-Muslim sentiment in Christian Europe.

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Reading: Boise State University: E.L. Skip Knox’s The Crusades: “The Major Crusades”
Link: Boise State University: E.L. Skip Knox’s The Crusades: “The Major Crusades” (HTML)

Instructions: Please read all of the entries under “The Major Crusades” (i.e. the First through the Seventh Crusade) to get a better understanding of the crusades’ various goals, conduct, and legacy. This information addresses subsections 5.1 though 5.3.

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Lecture: iTunesU: The Open University: Religion in History: Conflict, Conversion and Coexistence, Lecture 7, “The Crusades”
Link: The Open University: Religion in History: Conflict, Conversion and Coexistence, Lecture 7, “The Crusades” (iTunes U)

Instructions: Please listen to the entire 30-minute lecture to get a get a better understanding of the context, causes, and legacy of the Crusades. This lecture addresses subsections 5.1 through 5.3.

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Lecture: iTunesU: Yale University: Yale Religion, Lecture 12, “Medieval Crusades and Today’s Global Conflicts”
Link: iTunesU: Yale University: Yale Religion, Lecture 12, “Medieval Crusades and Today's Global Conflicts” (iTunes U)

Instructions: Please listen to the entire 40-minute lecture, which addresses the history of the Crusades and their enduring impact on Western/Islamic relations today. This lecture addresses subsections 5.1 through 5.3.

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Web Media: NPR: Mike Shuster’s: “The Middle East and the West: The Crusades”
Link: NPR: Mike Shuster’s: “The Middle East and the West: The Crusades” (Adobe Flash)

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Instructions: Please listen to this 10-minute program, which explores the Crusades in the Middle East and its legacy for the region. This program also presents a different perspective than the previous programs. Please click on the link above and, when the page loads, click on “Listen” to stream the program. This program addresses subsections 5.1 through 5.3.

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Web Media: NPR/American Radio Works/Minnesota Public Radio: Sandy Tolan’s The Arab World and the West: “Part I”
Link: NPR/American Radio Works/Minnesota Public Radio: Sandy Tolan’s The Arab World and the West: “Part I” (Adobe Flash)

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Instructions: Please listen to the 13-minute program that explores the legacy of the Crusades for the Middle East. This program presents a different perspective than the previous programs have. Please click on the link above and, when the page loads, click on “Listen” to stream the program. This program addresses some of subsections 5.1 through 5.3.

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5.1 Causes

5.1.1 Violence in the Holy Land

5.1.2 Christianization of Europe

5.1.3 Muslims in Iberia

5.1.4 Muslim Encroachments

5.1.5 Breakdown of Carolingian Empire

5.2 Goals of the Crusades

5.2.1 Recapturing Jerusalem from Muslim Control

Reading: Fordham University: Paul Halsall’s The Medieval Sourcebook: “Fulk of Chartres: ‘The Capture of Jerusalem, 1099”
Link: Fordham University: Paul Halsall’s The Medieval Sourcebook: “Fulk of Chartres: 'The Capture of Jerusalem, 1099'” (PDF)

Instructions: Please read the entirety of this webpage, which offers a firsthand account of the First Crusades.

Note on the text: During the First Crusade (in 1099), the Christian armies attacked and captured Jerusalem. In this text, Fulk of Chartres, who participated in the storming of the city, describes the fighting between the Frankish army and the Saracens, or Muslims. After taking the city, the Christians burned the bodies of Saracens with the goal of extracting the gold coins that the Muslims had swallowed.

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5.3 Impact of the Crusades

5.3.1 Papal Authority and Religious Piety

5.3.2 Unity Among European Christians

5.3.3 Massacre of Jews and Muslims

5.3.4 Fall of Constantinople

5.3.5 Rift between Islam and Christendom

5.3.6 Trade

Unit 6: The Mongol Invasions

The Mongols—nomads of central Eurasia—dominated world history during the thirteenth century. The Mongols invaded many postclassical empires and built an extensive cultural and commercial network. Led by Chinggis Khan and his successors, the Mongols brought China, Persia, Tibet, Eurasia Minor, and southern Russia under their control. The Mongol Empire also opened trade routes—primarily along the Silk Road—as well as lines of communication between Asia and the Middle East. Under Hulegu Khan, the Mongols sacked the Abbasid capital at Baghdad and decimated much of the Islamic civilization. They killed the last Abbasid caliphate and established the Ilkhanate, which ruled Persia until the fourteenth century. The Ilkhans embraced many religions, particularly Christianity, in their quest to create an alliance with Europe. However, beginning in 1295, the Ilkhans converted to Islam.

In this unit, we will study the end of the Abbasid era and the invasion of the Mongols. We will also examine the effect of Buddhist and Christian Mongol rule over predominantly Muslim peoples.

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Reading: The University of Calgary: The Applied History Reaserch Group’s The Islamic World to 1600: The Mongol Invasions: “Introduction,” “The Chagatai Khanate,” “The Golden Horde,” “The Il-Khanate,” “The Timurid Empire.”
Link: The University of Calgary: The Applied History Reaserch Group’s The Islamic World to 1600: The Mongol Invasions: “Introduction,” “The Chagatai Khanate,” “The Golden Horde,” “The Il-Khanate,” “The Timurid Empire”

Note: All websites are in HTML.

Instructions: Please read the entirety of this webpage, which offers a comprehensive overview of the Mongols’ spread of Islam into Central Asia. These links address subsections 6.1 through 6.2.

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Web Media: The History Channel’s Barbarians: “The Mongols”
Link: The History Channel’s Barbarians: “The Mongols” (Google Video)

Instructions: Please watch the entire 45-minute documentary for a comprehensive overview of the Mongolian empire. This documentary addresses subsections 6.1 through 6.2

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6.1 Rise of the Mongols

6.1.1 Chinggis Khan

6.1.2 The Nomadic Mongols

6.1.3 Asian Conquests

6.2 The Mongols in the Middle East

6.2.1 Conquest of the Abbasids

6.2.2 The Battle of Baghdad

6.2.3 Suppression of the Seljuk Turks

6.2.4 Establishment of the Ilkhanate

6.2.5 Conversion to Islam

6.2.6 End of Mongol Rule

Unit 7: The Ottomans and the Safavids

Two powerful Muslim empires emerged in the Middle East in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The Ottomans ruled Asia Minor, eastern Europe, northern Africa, and parts of the Middle East, while the Safavids built an empire that included present-day Afghanistan and Iran. Both, however, possessed a religious zeal for the expansion of Islam. The Ottomans emerged in the wake of Mongol defeat: they invaded the Balkans, captured Constantinople, and toppled Byzantium, forging a military state ruled by a sultanate and dominated by a warrior aristocracy. The Safavids also rose to power in the wake of the Mongol invasions. The Safavids were Shi’a Muslims who claimed leadership and established rule by a shah and his court. Both the Ottomans and the Safavids encouraged Islamic learning and cultural advancement while also bolstering trade.

In this unit, we will consider emergence of the Ottoman and Safavid empires. We will compare and contrast the two empires and study the reasons for their hegemony and decline.

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Reading: The University of Calgary: The Applied History Reaserch Group’s The Islamic World to 1600: Rise of the Great Islamic Empires: “Introduction,” “The Ottoman Empire,” “The Safavid Empire,” and “The Mughal Empire.”
Link: The University of Calgary: The Applied History Reaserch Group’s The Islamic World to 1600: Rise of the Great Islamic Empires: “Introduction,” “The Ottoman Empire,” “The Safavid Empire,” “The Mughal Empire.”

Note: All websites are in HTML format.

Instructions: Please read the entirety of this webpage, which details the rise of the great Islamic empires and addresses subsections 7.1 through 7.4. You can toggle between chapters by clicking on the various links on the left-hand side of the webpage.

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Web Media: PBS’s Islam: Empire of Faith: “Ottomans”
Link: PBS’s Islam: Empire of Faith: “Ottomans” (Google Video)

Instructions: Please watch the entire 55-minute documentary for a comprehensive overview of the Ottoman Empire up to the seventeenth-century. This documentary explores subsections 7.1 through 7.4.

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The Saylor Foundation does not yet have materials for this portion of the course. If you are interested in contributing your content to fill this gap or aware of a resource that could be used here, please submit it here.
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Web Media: NPR: Mike Shuster’s: “The Middle East and the West: Rise of the Ottomans”
Link: NPR: Mike Shuster’s “The Middle East and the West: Rise of the Ottomans” (Adobe Flash)

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Instructions: Please listen to the 10-minute program, which explores the rise of the Ottoman Empire. Please click on the link above and, when the page loads, click on “Listen” to stream the program. This program addresses subsections 7.1 and 7.2.

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7.1 Ottoman Conquests

7.1.1 Unification of Beyliks

7.1.2 Challenges from Timur

7.1.3 The Ottoman Sultanate

7.1.4 Fall of Constantinople

7.1.5 Conflicts with the Mamluks and Safavids

7.1.6 The Franco-Ottoman Alliance

7.1.7 Decline of the Ottomans and the Rise of Europe

7.2 Ottoman Society

7.2.1 Sultans

7.2.2 Janissaries

7.2.3 Religious Scholars

7.2.4 Importance of Islam

7.3 The Safavids

Reading: Wikipedia: “Safavid Dynasty”
Link: Wikipedia: “Safavid Dynasty” (PDF)

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Instructions: Please read the entirety of this entry in order to get a sense of the Safavid dynasty. This link addresses subsections 7.3 through 7.4.

Terms of Use: The Wikipedia article above is released under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share-Alike License 3.0 (HTML). You can find the original version of this article here (HTML).
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7.3.1 Shi’a Islam

7.3.2 Expansion in Iran and Iraq

7.3.3 Conflicts with the Ottomans

7.4 Safavid State and Society

7.4.1 Shahs

7.4.2 Shi’ism

7.4.3 Trade with Asia and Europe

7.4.4 Persian Language

Unit 8: European Challenges and the Ottoman Empire

By the nineteenth century, the Ottoman Empire was in decline. The Ottomans, their imperial holdings much reduced since their heyday in the sixteenth century, became increasingly dependent on European resources to buoy their empire. Beginning in the late 1800s, Ottoman leaders embarked upon a policy of reform that they believed would modernize their state by implementing constitutional government, educational systems, new technology, and new industry with European monies. As a result of this financial dependence, many European powers began to dominate or annex Ottoman holdings in the Middle East in the 1800s. With the outbreak of World War I in 1914, the Ottomans allied themselves with the Central Powers—Austria-Hungary and Germany—but were defeated by the Allied forces in 1918.

In this unit, we will study the reasons for the decline of the Ottoman Empire in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. We will also examine how and why European nations challenged Ottoman authority and began to exert power in the Middle East.

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8.1 Ottoman Empire in the 1800s

Reading: Wikipedia: “Ottoman Empire”
Link: Wikipedia: “Ottoman Empire” (PDF)

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Instructions: Please read the entirety of this entry in order to get a sense of the Ottoman Empire. This link covers subpoints 8.1.1 and 8.1.2.

Terms of Use: The Wikipedia article above is released under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share-Alike License 3.0 (HTML). You can find the original version of this article here (HTML).
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8.1.1 “Sick Man of Europe”

8.1.2 Financial Control by European Powers

8.2 European Dominion of the Ottoman Empire

Web Media: NPR: Mike Schuster’s “The Middle East and the West: Carving Up the Region”
Link: NPR: Mike Schuster’s: “The Middle East and the West: Carving up the Region” (Adobe Flash Audio)

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Instructions: Please listen to this 10-minute program, which explores the expansion of European dominance in the Middle East during the 19^th century. Please click on the link above and, when the page loads, click on “Listen” to stream the program. This program addresses subsection 8.2.

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8.2.1 French Annexation of Algeria and Tunisia

8.2.2 British Occupation of Egypt

8.2.3 British Control of Persian Gulf

8.2.4 French Influence in Lebanon and Syria

8.2.5 Italy in Libya and the Dodecanese Islands

8.3 Reforms in the Middle East

8.3.1 The Young Turks

Reading: Wikipedia: “Young Turks”
Link: Wikipedia: “Young Turks” (PDF)

Instructions: Please read the entirety of this entry in order to get a better understanding of the Young Turks.

Terms of Use: The Wikipedia article above is released under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share-Alike License 3.0 (HTML). You can find the original version of this article here (HTML).
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Reading: Fordham University: Paul Halsall’s Modern History Sourcebook: “The Young Turks: Proclamation for the Ottoman Empire, 1908.”
Link: Fordham University: Paul Halsall’s Modern History Sourcebook: “The Young Turks: Proclamation for the Ottoman Empire, 1908” (PDF)

Instructions: Please read the entirety of this proclamation to better understand the Young Turks’ goals.

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Unit 9: The Islamic World in an Age of European Domination

The collapse of the Ottoman Empire, the end of World War I, and the discovery of oil allowed European powers to gain new influence in the Middle East. Near the end of World War I, Britain and France negotiated for the partition of the Middle East between them, proclaiming territorial “mandates.” In addition, Britain promised European Zionists a Jewish homeland in Palestine. Not only were Britain and France interested in expanding their influence in the Middle East, but they were keen on exploiting the Middle East’s primary resource: oil. Oil fueled the development of industrial Europe, and by mandating control over Middle Eastern countries, Britain and France were guaranteed access to sought-after petroleum products.

In this unit, we will consider the how and why territorial mandates and protectorates under the authority of European powers were established in the Middle East. We will also study how these policies ignited conflict among Islamic peoples, especially in Palestine.

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Lecture: iTunesU: Columbia University: Richard Bulliet’s W3719 History of the Modern Middle East, Lecture 15, “World War I”
Link: iTunesU: Columbia University: Richard Bulliet’s W3719 History of the Modern Middle East, Lecture 15, “World War I” (iTunes U)

Instructions: Please listen to the entire 80-minute lecture, which addresses World War I and its effects on the Middle East. This lecture addresses subsections 9.1 through 9.1.4 and 9.2 through 9.2.5.

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Reading: Marshall University/BBC: David R. Woodward’s World Wars In-depth: “The Middle East During World War I”
Link: Marshall University/BBC: David R. Woodward’s World Wars In-depth: “The Middle East During World War I” (HTML)

Instructions: Please read the entirety of the website in order to get a sense of World War I’s effect on the Middle East. This link addresses subsections 9.1 through 9.2.2.

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Web Media: NPR: Mike Shuster’s “The Middle East and the West: WWI and Beyond”
Link: NPR: Mike Shuster’s “The Middle East and the West: WWI and Beyond” (Adobe Flash)

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Instructions: Please listen to the 10-minute program that explores the World War I in the Middle East and its legacy for the region. Please click on the link above and, when the page loads, click on “Listen” to stream the program. This program addresses subsections 9.1 through 9.2.

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Lecture: NPR: Terry Gross' Fresh Air: “Historian Margaret Macmillan”
Link: NPR: Terry Gross' Fresh Air: “Historian Margaret Macmillan” (Adobe Flash)

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Instructions: Please listen to this 40-minute program, which explores the World War I in the Middle East and its legacy for the region and the contemporary world. This program discusses Macmillan’s prize-winning book, Paris 1919: Six Months that Changed the World, with the author. Please click on the link above and, when the page loads, click on “Listen” to stream the program. This program addresses subsections 9.2 through 9.2.4.

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9.1 The End of the Ottoman Empire

9.1.1 Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary

9.1.2 World War I

9.1.3 The Arab Revolt

Reading: Wikipedia: “Arab Revolt”
Link: Wikipedia: “Arab Revolt” (PDF)

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Instructions: Please read the entirety of this entry in order to get a better understanding of the Arab Revolt.

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9.1.4 Defeat of the Ottomans in 1918

9.1.5 Rise of Kemal Ataturk and the Europeanization of Turkey

Reading: Wikipedia: “Mustafa Kemal Ataturk”
Link: Wikipedia: “Mustafa Kemal Ataturk” (PDF)

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Instructions: Please read the entirety of this entry in order to get a sense of the Ataturk’s biography and continuing importance in Turkey.

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9.2 Partitioning the Middle East

Lecture: iTunesU: Columbia University: Richard Bulliet’s W3719 History of the Modern Middle East, Lectures 16 & 17, “The Time Between Wars” and “Palestine and Zionism”
Link: iTunesU: Columbia University: Richard Bulliet’s W3719 History of the Modern Middle East, Lectures 16 & 17, “The Time Between Wars” and “Palestine and Zionism” (iTunes U)

Instructions: Please listen to both 80-minute lectures, which address social, political, and economic change in the Middle East following World War I.

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9.2.1 The Sykes-Picot Agreement

Reading: Wikipedia: “Sykes-Picot Agreement”
Link: Wikipedia: “Sykes-Picot Agreement” (PDF)

Instructions: Please read the entirety of this entry in order to better understand the content and implications of the Sykes-Picot Agreement.

Terms of Use: The Wikipedia article above is released under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share-Alike License 3.0 (HTML). You can find the original version of this article here (HTML).
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Reading: WWI Document Archive: “Sykes-Picot Agreement”
Link: WWI Document Archive: “Sykes-Picot Agreement” (PDF)

Instructions: Please read the entirety of this entry in order to better understand the actual text of the Sykes-Picot Agreement.

About the link: This primary source document archive is administered by Richard Hacken and Brigham Young University.

Terms of Use: This material is part of the public domain.
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9.2.2 The Balfour Declaration

Web Media: NPR: Mike Shuster’s The Mideast: A Century of Conflict: “The Balfour Declaration and the British Mandate”
Link: NPR: Mike Shuster’s The Mideast: A Century of Conflict: “The Balfour Declaration and the British Mandate” (RealPlayer)

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Instructions: Please listen to this 5-minute clip, which explores the Balfour Declaration and the subsequent British Mandate. Click on the link at the top of the page “Listen to Part 2 of Mike Shuster’s series” to access.

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9.2.3 British Mandated Territories

Web Media: Wikipedia: “British Mandate Territories”
Link: Wikipedia: “British Mandate Territories” (PNG Image)

Instructions: Please examine this map to better understand the extent of the British’s Middle Eastern mandate.

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9.2.4 French Mandated Territories

Web Media: Wikipedia: “French Mandate Territories”
Link: Wikipedia: “French Mandate Territories” (PNG Image)

Instructions: Please examine this map to better understand the extent of France’s Middle Eastern mandate.

Terms of Use: The Wikipedia article above is released under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share-Alike License 3.0 (HTML). You can find the original version of this article here (HTML).
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9.2.5 Discovery of Oil

Web Media: PBS’s The Prize: “The Black Giant”
Link: PBS’s The Prize: “The Black Giant” (Google Video)

Instructions: Please watch the entire 50-minute documentary for a better understanding of Europe’s interest in Middle East oil following World War I.

About the link: This documentary is based on Daniel Yergin’s Pulitzer Prize-winning book, The Prize: The Epic Struggle for Oil, Money, and Power.

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Unit 10: Nationalism and Independence Movements

Beginning in 1940s, Britain and France abandoned their protectorates and ended their mandates in the Middle East, largely due to conflicts that erupted between local governments and their foreign occupiers. Between 1941 and 1947, Iran, Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, Iraq, and Egypt (with the exception of the British-dominated Suez Canal) became independent of European rule. And in 1948, Zionists established the state of Israel, a declaration that precipitated the 1948 Arab-Israeli war and decades of subsequent conflict. However, while many Middle Eastern nations became independent of British and French rule in the 1940s, the onset of the Cold War attracted new foreign interest in the region. As a result, the United States and the Soviet Union vied for control of the Middle East throughout much of the twentieth century.

In this unit, we will examine how Middle Eastern independence movements and nationalism resulted in the creation of several new states in the region. We will also study how the end of British and French occupation of the Middle East also meant the beginning of Soviet and American influence there.

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10.1 Revolts Against European Domination

Lecture: iTunesU: Columbia University: Richard Bulliet’s W3719 History of the Modern Middle East, Lectures 18 & 19, “The Question of Islamic Authority” and “New Muslim Organization”
Link: iTunesU: Columbia University: Richard Bulliet’s W3719 History of the Modern Middle East, Lectures 18 & 19, “The Question of Islamic Authority” (iTunes U) and “New Muslim Organization” (iTunes U)

Instructions: Please listen to both 80-minute lectures, which discuss the growing anti-colonial and nationalist sentiment in the Middle East during and after World War II.

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10.2 World War II

Web Media: PBS’s The Prize: “War and Oil”
Link: PBS’s The Prize: “War and Oil” (Google Video)

Instructions: Please watch the entire 50-minute documentary for a better understanding of the centrality of oil to World War II and, by extension, the centrality of the Middle East to the war effort.

About the link: This documentary is based on Daniel Yergin’s Pulitzer Prize-winning book, The Prize: The Epic Struggle for Oil, Money, and Power.

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10.2.1 The Suez Canal

Reading: Wikipedia: “Suez Crisis”
Link: Wikipedia: “Suez Crisis” (PDF)

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Instructions: Please read the entirety of this entry in order to get a better understanding of the Suez Crisis.

Terms of Use: The Wikipedia article above is released under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share-Alike License 3.0 (HTML). You can find the original version of this article here (HTML).
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10.2.2 The Anglo-Iraqi War

Reading: Wikipedia: “Anglo-Iraqi War”
Link: Wikipedia: “Anglo-Iraqi War” (PDF)

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Instructions: Please read the entirety of this entry in order to get a better understanding of the Anglo-Iraqi War.

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10.2.3 The Allied Invasion of Syria-Lebanon

Reading: The Saylor Foundation's "The Allied Invasion of Syria-Lebanon"
Link: The Saylor Foundation's "The Allied Invasion of Syria-Lebanon" (PDF)

Instructions: Please read the linked material.
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10.2.4 The Anglo-Soviet Invasion of Iran

Reading: Wikipedia: “Anglo-Soviet Invasion of Iran”
Link: Wikipedia: “Anglo-Soviet Invasion of Iran” (PDF)

Instructions: Please read the entirety of this entry in order to get a better understanding of the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran.

Terms of Use: The Wikipedia article above is released under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share-Alike License 3.0 (HTML). You can find the original version of this article here (HTML).
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10.3 The Cold War in the Middle East

Web Media: NPR: Mike Shuster’s “The Middle East and the West: The U.S. Role Grows”
Link: NPR: Mike Shuster’s “The Middle East and the West: The U.S. Role Grows” (Adobe Flash)

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Instructions: Please listen to this 10-minute program, which explores the rising influence of the U.S. in the Middle East following World War II. Please click on the link above and, when the page loads, click on “Listen” to stream the program. This program addresses all subsections that follow.

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Web Media: NPR: Columbia University: Rashid Khalidi’s “Sowing Crisis”
Link: NPR: Columbia University: Rashid Khalidi’s “Sowing Crisis” (Adobe Flash)

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Instructions: Please listen to this 30-minute lecture, which addresses the ways in which the global Cold War affected and was affected by the Middle East. This discussion is based on Khalidi’s excellent book, Sowing Crisis: The Cold War and American Dominance in the Middle East.

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Lecture: iTunesU: Columbia University: Richard Bulliet’s W3719 History of the Modern Middle East, Lecture 20, “The Cold War”
Link: iTunesU: Columbia University: Richard Bulliet’s W3719 History of the Modern Middle East, Lecture 20, “The Cold War” (iTunes U)

Instructions: Please listen to this 80-minute lecture, which addresses the ways in which the global Cold War affected and was affected by the Middle East.

Terms of Use: Please respect the copyright and terms of use displayed on the webpage above.

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Web Media: Council on Foreign Relations/ NPR: Thomas W. Lippman’s “Lippman’s ‘Mirage’ Tracks History of U.S.-Saudi Ties”
Link: NPR's All Things Considered: “Lippman's 'Mirage' Tracks History of U.S.-Saudi Ties” (Adobe Flash Audio)

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Instructions: Please listen to this 6-minute program, which explores the history of U.S./Saudi relations. This program discusses Thomas Lippman’s book, Inside the Mirage: America’s Fragile Partnership with Saudi Arabia, with the author. Please click on the link above and, when the page loads, click on “Listen” to stream the program.

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Web Media: PBS’s The Prize: “Crude Diplomacy”
Link: PBS’s The Prize: “Crude Diplomacy” (Google Video)

Instructions: Please watch the entire 50-minute documentary for a better understanding of America’s growing interest in the Middle East following World War II. This documentary explores subpoints listed in the next unit.

About the link: This documentary is based on Daniel Yergin’s Pulitzer Prize-winning book, The Prize: The Epic Struggle for Oil, Money, and Power.

Terms of Use: Please respect the copyright and terms of use displayed on the webpage above
The Saylor Foundation does not yet have materials for this portion of the course. If you are interested in contributing your content to fill this gap or aware of a resource that could be used here, please submit it here.
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10.3.1 Egypt and the First Revolution

Reading: Wikipedia: “Egyptian Revolution of 1919”
Link: Wikipedia: “Egyptian Revolution of 1919” (PDF)

Instructions: Please read this encyclopedia entry to better understand the significance of Egyptian Revolution of 1919.

Terms of Use: The Wikipedia article above is released under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share-Alike License 3.0 (HTML). You can find the original version of this article here (HTML).
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10.3.2 Syria and the Battle of Maysalun

Reading: The Saylor Foundation's "Syria and the Battle of Maysalun"
Link: The Saylor Foundation's "Syria and the Battle of Maysalun" (PDF)

Instructions: Please read the linked material.

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10.3.3 Iraqi Revolt Against the British

Reading: Wikipedia: “Iraqi Revolt Against the British”
Link: Wikipedia: “Iraqi Revolt Against the British” (PDF)

Instructions: Please read this encyclopedia entry to better understand the significance of the Iraqi Revolt.

Terms of Use: The Wikipedia article above is released under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share-Alike License 3.0 (HTML). You can find the original version of this article here (HTML).
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10.3.4 Arab Nationalism vs. Zionism

Reading: Wikipedia: “Eisenhower Doctrine”
Link: Wikipedia: “Eisenhower Doctrine” (PDF)

Instructions: Please read this encyclopedia entry to better understand the significance of the Eisenhower Doctrine for the subsequent development of the Middle East.

Terms of Use: The Wikipedia article above is released under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share-Alike License 3.0 (HTML). You can find the original version of this article here (HTML).
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Reading: Fordham University: Paul Halsall’s Modern History Sourcebook: “The Eisenhower Doctrine on the Middle East”
Link: Fordham University: Paul Halsall’s Modern History Sourcebook: “The Eisenhower Doctrine on the Middle East” (PDF)

Instructions: Please read the entirety of Eisenhower’s speech to Congress which lays out what subsequently became known as the “Eisenhower Doctrine.”

Note on the text: At the end of World War II, a new war—the Cold War—was unleashed between the United States and the Soviet Union and its satellite states. This conflict manifested itself in the Middle East; it was one of several theaters in the contest between democracy and Communism. In this speech, President Eisenhower describes the U.S. foreign policy toward the Middle East: to preserve the independence of New Middle Eastern States while also protecting them from Communist Russia.

Terms of Use: This material is part of the public domain.
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10.4 Postwar Independence

10.4.1 Iran

Lecture: iTunesU: Columbia University: Richard Bulliet’s W3719 History of the Modern Middle East, Lecture 23, “Iran Under the Shahs”
Link: iTunesU: Columbia University: Richard Bulliet’s W3719 History of the Modern Middle East, Lecture 23, “Iran Under the Shahs” (iTunes U)

Instructions: This 80 minute lecture explores Iranian political, economic, and social life under the Shahs.

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Lecture: Northwestern University/NPR: Steven Kinzer’s “’New York Times’’ Correspondent Stephen Kinzer”
Link: NPR: Terry Gross' Fresh Air “'New York Times' Correspondent Stephen Kinzer” (Adobe Flash)

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Instructions: Please listen to this 35-minute program, which explores Stephen Kinzer’s book All the Shah’s Men, which details the CIA’s 1953 coup that overthrew the democratically elected Iranian government. Please click on the link above and, when the page loads, click on “Listen” to stream the program.

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10.4.2 Partitioning of Palestine

Web Media: NPR: Mike Shuster’s “Partition, War and Independence”
Link: NPR: Mike Shuster’s “Partition, War and Independence” (RealPlayer)

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Instructions: Please listen to this five-minute clip, which explores Britain’s, the U.S.’, and the U.N.’s attempts to equitably solve the Zionist-Palestinian dispute and the subsequent war between Palestinians and Israelis. Click on the link at the top of the page “Listen to Part 3 of Mike Shuster’s series” to access. This program also contains information about subunit 10.4.8.

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10.4.3 The Arab-Israeli War of 1948

Reading: Wikipedia: “1948 Arab-Israeli War”
Link: Wikipedia: “1948 Arab-Israeli War” (PDF)

Also available in:
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Instructions: Please read the entirety of this entry in order to get a better understanding of the 1948 war between Zionists and Palestinians.

Terms of Use: The Wikipedia article above is released under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share-Alike License 3.0 (HTML). You can find the original version of this article here (HTML).
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10.4.4 The Six Day War (June 1967)

Lecture: NPR: Mike Shuster’s “The 1967 Six Day War”
Link: NPR: Mike Shuster’s “The 1967 Six Day War” (RealPlayer)

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Instructions: Please listen to this five-minute clip, which explores the 1967 Six Day War, a crucial turning point in Palestinian-Israeli relations. Click on the link at the top of the page “Listen to Part 3 of Mike Shuster’s series” to access.

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Lecture: UCTV (University of California Television): Tom Segev’s “Israel and the 1967 War”
Link: UCTV (University of California Television): Tom Segev’s “Israel and the 1967 War” (YouTube)

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Instructions: Please watch Tom Segev’s entire 55-minute discussion about the enduring impact of the Six Day War on Arab-Israeli relations.

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Web Media: NPR/American Radio Works/Minnesota Public Radio: Sandy Tolan’s The Arab World and the West: “Part II”
Link: NPR/American Radio Works/Minnesota Public Radio: Sandy Tolan’s The Arab World and the West: “Part II” (Adobe Flash)

Also available in:
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Instructions: Please listen to the 8-minute program that explores the legacy of 1967 Six Day War for the Middle East. This program also presents a different perspective than the previous programs. Please click on the link above and, when the page loads, click on “Listen” to stream the program.

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Web Media: NPR: Mike Schuster's The Mideast: A Century of Conflict: “From the 1973 Yom Kippur War to Peace with Egypt”
Link: NPR: Mike Schuster's The Mideast: A Century of Conflict: “From the 1973 Yom Kippur War to Peace With Egypt” (RealPlayer)

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Instructions: Please listen to this five-minute clip, which explores the Zionist-Palestinian conflict during the 1970s, a period which saw another new war but also saw an almost unbelievable peace deal between Egypt and Israel. Click on the link at the top of the page “Listen to Part 5 of Mike Shuster’s series” to access.

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Web Media: PBS’s The Prize: “Power to the Producers”
Link: PBS’s The Prize: “Power to the Producers” (Google Video)

Instructions: Please watch the entire 50-minute documentary for a better understanding of the changing relationship between Middle Eastern oil producers and the United States due to growing importance of oil. This documentary explores subpoints listed in the next unit.

About the link: This documentary is based on Daniel Yergin’s Pulitzer Prize-winning book, The Prize: The Epic Struggle for Oil, Money, and Power.

Terms of Use: Please respect the copyright and terms of use displayed on the webpage above.

The Saylor Foundation does not yet have materials for this portion of the course. If you are interested in contributing your content to fill this gap or aware of a resource that could be used here, please submit it here.
Submit Materials

Unit 11: The Islamic Revolution, Terrorism, and the West

The Islamic Revolution of 1979 (also known as the Iranian Revolution) overthrew the reigning shah (king) and established a theocratic state. The leader of the revolt, a Shi’ite Muslim cleric, proclaimed himself Ayatollah—or “supreme leader”—of Iran. The Ayatollah asserted the importance of the Islamic faith and decried Western influence and policy. The revolution established an important precedent in the Middle East by encouraging the proliferation of an Islamic ideology throughout the region. As a result, in the 1980s and 1990s, many fundamentalist Muslim groups emerged, including Al Qaeda and the Taliban. Many of these groups embraced an extreme strain of Islam as well as violent anti-Western sentiment. Islamic fundamentalists were responsible for numerous terrorist attacks against Western powers, including the 1998 embassy bombings in Africa and the September 11, 2001 attacks in New York City.

In this unit, we will consider the emergence of an Islamic ideology grounded in anti-Western sentiment that began to unite the Muslim world in the 1980s. We will also study the manifestation of that ideology in its most extreme form: Islamic terrorist groups.

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Web Media: PBS’s The Prize: “The Tinderbox”
Link: PBS’s The Prize: “The Tinderbox” (Google Video)

Instructions: Please watch this entire 50-minute documentary for a better understanding of how oil shapes the contemporary Middle East. This documentary explores subsection 11.1.

About the link: This documentary is based on Daniel Yergin’s Pulitzer Prize-winning book, The Prize: The Epic Struggle for Oil, Money, and Power.

Terms of Use: Please respect the copyright and terms of use displayed on the webpage above
The Saylor Foundation does not yet have materials for this portion of the course. If you are interested in contributing your content to fill this gap or aware of a resource that could be used here, please submit it here.
Submit Materials
Web Media: NPR: Mike Shuster’s “The Middle East and the West: Clash With Islam”
Link: NPR: Mike Shuster’s “The Middle East and the West: The Clash With Islam” (Adobe Flash)

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Instructions: Please listen to this 10-minute program, which explores the contemporary Middle East. Please click on the link above and, when the page loads, click on “Listen” to stream the program. This program addresses some of subsections 11.1 through 11.3.

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Lecture: iTunesU: Columbia University: Richard Bulliet’s W3719 History of the Modern Middle East, Lecture 25, “A New Era of Violence”
Link: iTunesU: Columbia University: Richard Bulliet’s W3719 History of the Modern Middle East, Lecture 25, “A New Era of Violence” (iTunes U)

Instructions: This 80-minute lecture explores the resurgence of violence in the Middle East over the last 30 years.

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Lecture: UCTV (University of California Television): John L. Esposito’s “Islam and the West”
Link: UCTV (University of California Television): John L. Esposito’s “Islam and the West” (YouTube)

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Instructions: Please watch Professor John L. Esposito’s entire 55-minute discussion. This interview discusses Professor Esposito’s book, Islam and the West, which addresses many of the issues raised in subsections 11.1 through 11.3.

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11.1 The Islamic Revolution of 1979

Lecture: Columbia University SIPA (School of International and Public Affairs): Richard Bulliet’s “Three Decades of the Islamic Republic of Iran”
Link: Columbia University SIPA (School of International and Public Affairs): Richard Bulliet’s “Three Decades of the Islamic Republic of Iran” (YouTube)

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Instructions: Please watch Richard Bulliet’s entire 80-minute lecture about the history and legacy of Iran’s 1979 Islamic Revolution. This will cover the material needed for 11.1.1 and 11.1.2 as well.

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Lecture: Columbia University: Leiden University: Asef Bayet’s “Thirty Years of Islamic Revolution”
Link: Columbia University: Leiden University: Asef Bayet’s “Thirty Years of Islamic Revolution” (YouTube)

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Instructions: Please watch Asef Bayet’s entire 80-minute lecture about the history and legacy of Iran’s 1979 Islamic Revolution. This will cover the material needed for 11.1.1 and 11.1.2 as well.

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11.1.1 Overthrow of Iran’s Monarchy

Reading: Fordham University: Paul Halsall’s Modern History Sourcebook: “Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini: The Uprising of Khurdad 15, 1979”
Link: Fordham University: Paul Halsall’s Modern History Sourcebook: “Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini: The Uprising of Khurdad 15, 1979” (PDF)

Instructions: Please read the entirety of this proclamation to better understand the Iranians’ perspective on the 1979 coup. This material will also cover section 11.1.2 as well.

Terms of Use: This material is part of the public domain.
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11.1.2 An Islamic Republic

11.1.3 Islamic Fundamentalism

Reading: The Saylor Foundation's "Islamic Fundamentalism"
Link: The Saylor Foundation's "Islamic Fundamentalism" (PDF)

Instructions: Please read the linked material.
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11.1.4 The Iran-Iraq War

Reading: Wikipedia: “Iran-Iraq War”
Link: Wikipedia: “Iran-Iraq War” (PDF)

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Instructions: Please read the entirety of this entry in order to get a sense for the causes, progress, and consequences of the Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988).

Terms of Use: The Wikipedia article above is released under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share-Alike License 3.0 (HTML). You can find the original version of this article here (HTML).
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11.2 The Israeli-Palestinian Conflict Since 1980

Web Media: NPR: Mike Shuster’s “From the First Intifada to the Oslo Peace Agreement”
Link: NPR: Mike Shuster’s “From the First Intifada to the Oslo Peace Agreement” (RealPlayer)

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Instructions: Please listen to this five-minute clip, which explores the various missed opportunities for peace between Israelis and Palestinians during the 1980s and early 1990s. Click on the link at the top of the page “Listen to Part 3 of Mike Shuster’s series” to access.

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Web Media: NPR: Mike Shuster’s “The Second Intifada and the Death of Oslo”
Link: NPR: Mike Shuster’s “The Second Intifada and the Death of Oslo” (RealPlayer)

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Instructions: Please listen to this five-minute clip, which explores the failure of the Oslo Peace Accords and the outlook for peace in the future between Israel and the Palestinians. Click on the link at the top of the page “Listen to Part 7 of Mike Shuster’s series” to access.

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11.2.1 Hezbollah

Web Media: NPR: Neal Conan’s “Who is Hezbollah?”
Link: NPR: Neal Conan’s “Who is Hezbollah?” (RealPlayer)

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Instructions: Please listen to this 35-minute discussion that explores the history, structure and impact of Hezbollah in the Middle East. Click on the link at the top of the page “Listen” to access.

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11.2.2 Al Qaeda

Lecture: UCTV (University of California Television): Steve Coll’s “The Rise of al-Qaeda”
Link: UCTV (University of California Television): Steve Coll’s “The Rise of al-Qaeda” (YouTube)

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Instructions: Please watch Steve Coll’s entire 55-minute discussion about the rise and progress of al-Qaeda. This interview is about addresses a series of Coll’s books, including Ghost Wars: The Secret History of the CIA, Afghanistan and Bin Laden, from the Soviet Invasion to September 10, 2001 and The Bin Ladens: An Arabian Family in the American Century.

Terms of Use: This video is licensed by the copyright holder, UCTV, as CC-BY-NC-ND - Creative Commons (Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works). For more information about this license, please read: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/.
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11.2.3 The Taliban

Reading: Wikipedia: “Taliban”
Link: Wikipedia: “Taliban” (PDF)

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Instructions: Please read the entirety of this entry in order to get a better understanding of the Taliban.

Terms of Use: The Wikipedia article above is released under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share-Alike License 3.0 (HTML). You can find the original version of this article here (HTML).
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11.3 Terrorism and Western Responses

11.3.1 September 11 Attacks

Reading: The Saylor Foundation's "September 11 Attacks"
Link: The Saylor Foundation's "September 11 Attacks" (PDF)

Instructions: Please read the linked material.
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11.3.2 “War on Terror”

Reading: The Saylor Foundation's "War on Terror"
Link: The Saylor Foundation's "War on Terror" (PDF)

Instructions: Please read the linked material.
See a broken link? Please let us know!

11.3.3 Invasion of Iraq

Reading: The Saylor Foundation's "Invasion of Iraq"
Link: The Saylor Foundation's "Invasion of Iraq" (PDF)

Instructions: Please read the linked material.
See a broken link? Please let us know!

11.3.4 War in Afghanistan

Reading: Wikipedia: “War in Afghanistan (2001-Present)”
Link: Wikipedia: “War in Afghanistan” (PDF)

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Instructions: Please read the entirety of this entry in order to get a comprehensive overview of the War in Afghanistan.

Terms of Use: The Wikipedia article above is released under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share-Alike License 3.0 (HTML). You can find the original version of this article here (HTML).
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Final Exam

Final Exam: The Saylor Foundation's HIST351 Final Exam
Link: The Saylor Foundation's HIST351 Final Exam

Instructions: You must be logged into your Saylor Foundation School account in order to access this exam. If you do not yet have an account, you will be able to create one, free of charge, after clicking the link.
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