BIO304: Human Physiology « Saylor.org – Free Online Courses Built by Professors

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Human Physiology

Purpose of Course show close

Human physiology is the study of the body’s processes, also known as functions. You already have experience with this subject, because you are a human and perform numerous functions each day to maintain your body’s balance or homeostasis. For example, gas exchange in your lungs provides the body’s cells with adequate oxygen supply needed to survive and carry out metabolic processes. Digestion of food components in your mouth, stomach, and small intestines breaks larger substances into molecules that can be absorbed in the small intestines and used for energy. White blood cells attack foreign bodies, such as bacteria and cells containing viruses to keep you free from infection. As you might expect, an understanding of physiology is paramount if you wish to pursue studies in health care, development, or even behavior. A doctor needs to understand how to relate a urine sample to kidney function. A nurse needs to know the importance of electrocardiogram results and heart activity. A medical laboratory scientist needs to relate blood enzymes to disease states, such as anemia or diabetes mellitus. No matter what your role is in medicine, you must know how the body works and what happens when it does not function appropriately. In this course, we will look at each organ system in detail and then discuss the ways in which these systems interact in order to maintain overall body functioning. Metabolism and homeostasis – or the maintenance of the body at a set, optimal level – will be important themes found throughout the units. We will accordingly discuss metabolic processes at length from the cellular to the organismal level. Although this course will focus on the function (physiology) of the human body, it is necessary to have a good grasp of anatomy in order to fully understand function. We will briefly review the anatomy of each organ system before studying the systems themselves. If you would like to get more information or review the anatomy of each system, please refer to BIO302: Human Anatomy. As we work through this course, the importance of the structure-function relationship between anatomy and physiology will become apparent. Keep thinking about how anatomy (structure) is important to physiology (function). Why are the valves of the heart only one way? Why are muscle cells long rather than round? These kinds of questions should be asked and answered as you move through this course. This is an advanced course and therefore mastery of lower level pre-requisites is imperative. You should have a good understanding of material covered in BIO101A: Introduction to Cellular and Molecular Biology or BIO101B: Introduction to Cellular and Molecular Biology and BIO302: Human Anatomy as this course builds on what you have already learned in those courses. It is also recommended that CHEM101: General Chemistry I is taken prior to this course as an understanding of molecules is important in physiology. Finally, in order to practice what you learn in this course in a more hands on manner, the BIO304L: Human Physiology Lab is a co-requisite and must be taken at the same time as this course.

Course Information show close

Welcome to BIO304! General information about the course and its requirements can be found below.

Primary Resources: This course is comprised of a range of different free, online materials. However, the course makes primary use of the following materials:

Wikibooks’ Human Physiology
Wikibooks’ Structural Biochemistry
Khan Academy’s Human Biology Videos

Requirements for Completion: In order to complete this course, you will need to work through each unit and all of its assigned materials in the order they are presented. Pay special attention to Units 1 and 2 as these lay the groundwork for understanding the more advanced, exploratory material presented in the latter units. You will also need to complete assessments for each unit as well as the Final Exam.

Note that you will only receive an official grade on your Final Exam. However, in order to adequately prepare for this exam, you will need to work through the assessments and resources in each unit.

In order to “pass” this course, you will need to earn a 70% or higher on the Final Exam. Your score on the exam will be tabulated as soon as you complete it. If you do not pass the exam, you may take it again.

Time Commitment: This course should take you a total of 115.5 hours to complete. Each unit includes a “time advisory” that lists the amount of time you are expected to spend on each subunit. These should help you plan your time accordingly. It may be useful to take a look at these time advisories and to determine how much time you have over the next few weeks to complete each unit, and then to set goals for yourself. For example, Unit 1 should take 4.5 hours to complete. Perhaps you can sit down with your calendar and decide to complete subunit 1.1 (a total of 1.5 hours) on Monday night; subunit (a total of 3 hours) on Tuesday night; etc.

Tips/Suggestions: As you read and view lectures, make sure to take comprehensive notes. Mark down any important terms, definitions, and concepts that stand out to you. Please also note that some instructions for resources recommend that you create a chart to help you remember the material. These notes and charts will be useful as a study guide as you prepare to take the Final Exam.

This course features a number of Khan Academy™ videos. Khan Academy™ has a library of over 3,000 videos covering a range of topics (math, physics, chemistry, finance, history and more), plus over 300 practice exercises. All Khan Academy™ materials are available for free at www.khanacademy.org.

Learning Outcomes show close

Upon successful completion of this course, the student will be able to:

describe the relationship between structure and function at the cellular level, and relate dysfunctional states of health to problems at the cellular level when appropriate;
given relevant physiological information, explain the physiological mechanisms involved;
describe the concepts of homeostasis and feedback control in relationship to each organ system;
use vocabulary of physiological terms, and demonstrate an ability to communicate efficiently in a medical environment; and
describe techniques currently in use that measure the function of organ systems.

Course Requirements show close

In order to take this course you must:

√ have access to a computer;

√ have continuous broadband Internet access;

√ have the ability/permission to install plug-ins or software (e.g., Adobe Reader or Flash);

√ have the ability to download and save files and documents to a computer;

√ have the ability to open Microsoft files and documents (.doc, .ppt,.xls, etc.);

√ be competent in the English language;

√ have read the Saylor Student Handbook;

√ have completed the following courses from “The Core Program” and “Electives” sections of the Biology major: BIO101A: Introduction to Cellular and Molecular Biology or BIO101B: Introduction to Cellular and Molecular Biology and BIO302: Human Anatomy. The following course is recommended: CHEM101: General Chemistry I; and

√ be taking the lab associated with this course concurrently: BIO304L: Human Physiology Lab.

Unit Outline show close

1 Introduction to Physiology
1.1 Organization of the Body: Tissues, Organs, and Organ System
1.2 Homeostasis and Feedback Systems
1.3 Scientific Method

2 Chemical Composition of the Body and Cell Structure
2.1 Cell Structure and Function: Membrane, Cytoplasm, Nucleus
2.2 Protein Synthesis

3 Enzymes, Cellular Respiration, and Cellular Metabolism
3.1 Enzymes
3.2 Cellular Respiration: Glycolysis, Krebs Cycle, and Electron Transport Chain
3.3 Cellular Metabolism: Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Fats

4 Movement of Materials and Cell Signaling
4.1 Body-Fluid Compartments and Movement of Materials
4.2 The Membrane Potential
4.3 Cell Signaling

5 The Nervous System
5.1 Structural Unit of the Nervous System
5.2 Neuronal Signaling
5.2.1 The Action Potential
5.2.2 The Synapse
5.2.3 Neurotransmitters
5.3 Structure of the Nervous System
5.3.1 Central Nervous System
5.3.2 Peripheral Nervous System

6 The Sensory System
6.1 General Properties of Special Senses
6.2 Taste
6.3 Smell
6.4 Vision
6.5 Hearing and Equilibrium

7 The Muscular System
7.1 Types of Muscle Tissue
7.2 Skeletal Muscles
7.3 Smooth Muscle
7.4 Cardiac Muscle

8 The Endocrine System
8.1 Hormone Structures, Classification, and Mechanisms
8.2 Hormone Interactions
8.3 Pituitary Gland
8.4 Adrenal Glands
8.5 Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands
8.6 Other Glands: Pancreas, Pineal Gland, and Reproductive Organs

9 The Cardiovascular System
9.1 Circulatory Systems and the Heart
9.2 The Heart
9.3 Blood Vessels
9.4 Cardiovascular Diseases
9.5 Blood

10 The Respiratory System
10.1 Structure and Function of the Respiratory System
10.2 Respiratory Disorders

11 The Urinary System
11.1 The Urinary System: Structures and Functions of the Organs
11.2 Functions of the Urinary System: Filtration, Reabsorption, Secretion, Excretion
11.3 Renal Water and Salt/Electrolytes Balance

12 The Digestive System
12.1 The Digestive System: Structures and Functions of the Organs
12.2 Functions of the Digestive System: Ingestion, Digestion, Absorption, Elimination
12.3 Disorders and Dysfunctions

13 Metabolism
13.1 Metabolism: Review
13.2 Insulin and Glucagon

14 The Reproductive System
14.1 Sexual Reproduction
14.2 Male Reproductive System
14.3 Female Reproductive System
14.4 The Menstrual Cycle
14.5 Fertilization, Pregnancy, and Labor

15 The Immune System
15.1 Immune System: Overview
15.2 Immune System: Organs and Cells
15.3 Immune System Responses
15.4 Immune System Disorders

16 Final Exam

Expand All Resources Collapse All Resources

Unit 1: Introduction to Physiology

The study of physiology requires you to grasp a few basic concepts. This brief unit will review concepts including the overall organization of the body and the definition of homeostasis. You may recall from anatomy that small chemicals come together to form cells, which combine to form four tissue types. These tissues create all of the systems found in the body including the cardiovascular, renal, and respiratory systems, among others. These systems work together to ensure that the body is at its optimal, balanced state, known as homeostasis. When homeostasis is compromised, disease ensues. This is most often when patients visit their healthcare professional, although regular well exams are also important in catching disease states that might not be as obvious.

Our understanding of medicine stems from research. In order to study physiology and diseases (pathophysiology), researchers use the scientific method. This guideline allows researchers to study science in a controlled way that eliminates bias. For example, if you were comparing laundry detergents, it would be unfair to use your dirtiest load for one brand and a less dirty load for the other brand. You would need to wash both loads with an even distribution of laundry (types of items and level of dirtiness) at exactly the same wash settings. The only thing that would change (or the variable) would be the detergent. Only then could you make an accurate comparison. The same is true for scientific research. You would not want to take medicine or use a product that was not appropriately researched. Of course, there are other aspects to this scientific method. As you work through the scientific method section, think about how our laundry detergent example fits into this process.

Unit 1 Time Advisory show close

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1.1 Organization of the Body: Tissues, Organs, and Organ System

Web Media: YouTube: Paul Andersen’s “Anatomy and Physiology Intro”
Link: YouTube: Paul Andersen’s “Anatomy and Physiology Intro” (YouTube)

Instructions: Click on the link above and watch this entire video. This video does a fantastic job of reviewing several terms and concepts that are important in anatomy and physiology, including homeostasis and the hierarchy of the body from small chemical molecules all the way up to the complete human body. You learned about tissues in anatomy, and this video will remind you of this information, focusing on the important features of all four tissue types. The video ends with a brief description of organ systems, which will be the focus of this course. The more you know about anatomy, the easier it will be to understand the structure-function relationship that is key to studying physiology.

Watching this video and pausing to take notes should take approximately 30 minutes.

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Reading: Biology Corner’s Anatomy and Physiology: “Chapter 1: Introduction to Anatomy”
Link: Biology Corner’s Anatomy and Physiology: “Chapter 1: Introduction to Anatomy” (PDF)

Instructions: Read the notes linked above to get an overall description of how tissues make up organs and how organs work together to make up organ systems. Use the “Body Systems Concept Map” to test your knowledge of the structure and function of different organ systems.

Reading these notes and exploring the concept map should take approximately 1 hour and 30 minutes.

Terms of Use:This resource is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License. It is attributed to Biology Corner, and the original version can be found here.
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1.2 Homeostasis and Feedback Systems

Reading: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “Homeostasis Overview”
Link: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “Homeostasis Overview” (HTML)

Instructions: Click on the link above and read the “Homeostasis Overview” section to gain an understanding of homeostasis and its importance to overall body function. When homeostasis is lost, disease ensues. For example, if you cut your skin, this is a very simple example of how the loss of homeostasis could occur. The skin is not able to maintain its protective barrier or carry out its other functions; therefore, the normal activity in this area is not in homeostasis. Another example is if your intake of iron decreases. If your iron stores deplete, your production of red blood cells may go down leading to a condition known as iron deficiency anemia. Your body cells will get less oxygen and as a result your body will reduce the amount of activity that you are able to do and you may feel tired. In this example, the body as a whole is not functioning at its optimal state; therefore, the body is not in homeostasis. This reading will help you to better understand this concept. Consider these examples as you learn more about homeostasis.

Reading this section should take approximately 1 hour.

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Web Media: YouTube: slackerbiz’s “Homeostasis”
Link: YouTube: slackerbiz’s “Homeostasis” (YouTube)

Instructions: Click on the link above and watch this brief video to review homeostasis. Although the liver is listed with the renal system in this video, it is important to note that the liver is not a part of the renal system. The liver simply works with the renal system to maintain homeostasis.

Watching this video and pausing to take notes should take approximately 15 minutes.

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Web Media: Oklahoma City Community College: Dennis Anderson’s “Homeostasis Tutorial and Quiz”
Link: Oklahoma City Community College: Dennis Anderson’s “Homeostasis Tutorial and Quiz” (HTML)

Instructions: Work through the “Introduction,” “Individual Organism,” and “Cellular” sections of this tutorial. Make sure to click on “next” or any embedded links on each webpage for these sections. Click on the “Quiz” link to test your understanding. Try to write down your answers in your notes. Then, click on “Answer” to check your response against the sample answer. Make sure that you are have mastered homeostasis and positive and negative feedback concepts. This quiz may seem a bit difficult at this point, but by the end of this course these questions will be no problem!

Studying this tutorial and completing the quiz should take approximately 45 minutes.

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1.3 Scientific Method

Note: This section was reviewed in BIO101A: Introduction to Cellular and Molecular Biology. Return to BIO101A’s subunit 1.2.1: “The Scientific Method” for a refresher.

Assessment: McGraw-Hill Online Learning Center: Stuart Ira Fox’s “The Study of Body Function – Critical Thinking Exercises”
Link: McGraw-Hill Online Learning Center: Stuart Ira Fox’s “The Study of Body Function – Critical Thinking Exercises” (HTML)

Instructions: This assessment will test you on what you learned in unit 1. Complete this brief quiz to demonstrate your understanding of homeostasis and the body system concepts covered in this unit. These are critical thinking questions; take a second after reading each question to think about how the concepts you have just learned apply, and formulate a short, thoughtful answer. Click the “Submit Answers” button at the bottom of the page for instant grading and feedback.

If the content related to any of the questions is unclear to you, please return to related material that we have already covered or refer back to your previous anatomy course. This can only reinforce your memory and understanding of the material.

Completing this assessment should take approximately 1 hour.

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Unit 2: Chemical Composition of the Body and Cell Structure

This unit will cover the basic concepts of chemistry, which are required to understand the molecular make-up of the body. Small chemical elements such as carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, among others form larger molecules including carbohydrates, lipids (fats), proteins, and nucleic acids. These macromolecules form the cells that make up tissues and carry out many other important structural and functional roles. You will find lipids and proteins forming the membrane surrounding cells. Proteins and lipids are also hormones, such as the thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) and the sex hormones estrogen and testosterone. Our genetic DNA is made up of nucleic acids, as is energy ATP. Without carbohydrates, we would not be able to feed our cells glucose or store it for times when we cannot eat. The importance of these chemical compounds cannot be stressed enough. Once you have a good grasp of this information, review cell physiology. Cells are tiny units of life that work with other cells to keep the body in homeostasis. More information about molecules and cells can also be found in BIO101A or BIO101B: Introduction to Molecular and Cellular Biology.

Unit 2 Time Advisory show close

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2.1 Cell Structure and Function: Membrane, Cytoplasm, Nucleus

Web Media: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “Parts of a Cell”
Link: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “Parts of a Cell” (YouTube)

Instructions: Click on the link above and watch this excellent video for an overview of the eukaryotic cell structure and the function of each organelle. The lecturer does a great job describing the structure of the cell from the outside to the inside in a very simple, easy to understand manner. Notice how each organelle in the cell has an important, specific job. Take notes or even try to draw your own cell as you watch the video. You may remember some of this information from BIO 101A or BIO101B: Introduction to Molecular and Cellular Biology.

Watching this video and pausing to take notes should take approximately 45 minutes.

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Reading: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “Cell Physiology”
Link: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “Cell Physiology” (HTML)

Instructions: Read this chapter to learn about cells and how these tiny compartments work. Each cell functions on its own and in conjunction with other cells to carry out its job.

Reading this chapter should take approximately 2 hours.

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Web Media: YouTube: “Fluid Mosaic Model”
Link: YouTube: “Fluid Mosaic Model” (YouTube)

Instructions: Click on the link above and watch this brief video for a summary of the properties of the cell membrane. Notice that the membrane is made lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates creating a mosaic structure that continuously moves (is fluid). This is the basic idea of the fluid mosaic model, which is often used to describe the cell membrane.

Watching this video and pausing to take notes should take approximately 15 minutes.

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Assessment: McGraw-Hill Online Learning Center: Seeley, Stephens, & Tate’s “Structure and Function of the Cell: Labeling Exercises”
Link: McGraw-Hill Online Learning Center: Seeley, Stephens, & Tate’s “Structure and Function of the Cell: Labeling Exercises” (HTML)

Instructions: These labeling exercises review some of the important topics that we have discussed thus far about the cell. Although the exercises are sometimes confusing regarding exactly what is being identified, it is not graded and allows you to test your understanding of cell structure. Complete all six exercises and repeat until you have mastered them.

Completing these assessments should take approximately 2 hours.

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Assessment: McGraw-Hill Online Learning Center: Stuart Ira Fox’s “Cell Structure and Genetic Control Quiz: Multiple Choice 1” and “Cell Structure and Genetic Control Quiz: Multiple Choice 2”
Link: McGraw-Hill Online Learning Center: Stuart Ira Fox’s “Cell Structure and Genetic Control Quiz: Multiple Choice 1” (HTML) and “Cell Structure and Genetic Control Quiz: Multiple Choice 2” (HTML)

Instructions: Take these quizzes on basic cell structure and function. Click the “Submit Answers” button at the bottom of the pages for instant feedback.

If the content related to any of the questions is unclear to you, please feel free to return to any of the related material, or search for the information elsewhere online. This can only reinforce your memory and understanding of the material.

This assessment should take approximately 1 hour.

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2.2 Protein Synthesis

Web Media: YouTube: Michael Freudiger’s “From RNA to Protein Synthesis”
Link: YouTube: Michael Freudiger’s “From RNA to Protein Synthesis” (YouTube)

Instructions: Click on the link above and watch this brief YouTube video for a summary of protein synthesis and the role of the ribosome. Making proteins is important for cell structure and function. If the cell could not make proteins, we would have no keratin to provide structure to our skin and nails, no amylase or lipase for carbohydrate and lipid digestion in the gastrointestinal track, and no hemoglobin to hold oxygen on the red blood cells. Without proteins, our cells would die and our body as a whole would not survive.

Watching this video and pausing to take notes should take approximately 15 minutes.

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Unit 3: Enzymes, Cellular Respiration, and Cellular Metabolism

Protein enzymes play a significant role in catalyzing (speeding up the rate of) chemical reactions in our body. Protein enzymes are important facilitators in all cellular metabolic processes from digestion to respiration to growth. Enzymes require strict environmental conditions, including pH and temperature requirements and become non-functional or even destroyed if these needs are not met. It is interesting to note that although enzymes bring substances (substrates) together to have a reaction, the enzymes themselves are not changed in this reaction. It is imperative that you understand how enzymes work, because we will see them in all body systems that we cover in this course.

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3.1 Enzymes

Reading: Wikibooks’ Structural Biochemistry: “Enzymes – Overview”
Link: Wikibooks’ Structural Biochemistry: “Enzymes – Overview” (HTML)

Instructions: Click on the link above, read the introductory text, and click on the table of contents to access and read the “Lock and Key Model” and “Induced Fit” sections for an introduction to enzymes and enzymatic action. All cells in the body use enzymes to speed up the rate of reactions. As you can imagine, we cannot live without them!

Reading these sections should take approximately 30 minutes.

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Reading: Wikibooks’ Structural Biochemistry: “Active Site”
Link: Wikibooks’ Structural Biochemistry: “Active Site” (HTML)

Instructions: Click on the link above, and read the “Overview” and “Enzyme Inhibitors” sections to learn how enzymatic reactions can be inhibited. It is as important that actions in the body can be stopped as it is that they can start in the first place. Otherwise, control might be lost, and then homeostasis might be lost. This reading will show you how enzyme activity is controlled.

Reading these sections should take approximately 1 hour.

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Web Media: YouTube: Neurocirujo’s “Cellular Metabolism, Pathways, and Feedback”
Link: YouTube: Neurocirujo’s “Cellular Metabolism, Pathways, and Feedback” (YouTube)

Instructions: Click on the link above and watch this brief YouTube video about enzyme feedback inhibition through a negative feedback loop. Remember that homeostasis is regulated, in part, by positive and negative feedback loops. As you might imagine, enzyme activity is important for regulating and maintaining homeostasis.

Watching this video and pausing to take notes should take approximately 5 minutes.

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3.2 Cellular Respiration: Glycolysis, Krebs Cycle, and Electron Transport Chain

Web Media: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “Introduction to Cellular Respiration”
Link: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “Introduction to Cellular Respiration” (YouTube)

Instructions: Click on the link above and watch this video to learn about cellular respiration, which is the process by which the cell extracts energy from glucose. This is a very complex process, but the lecturer does a good job of breaking it down into manageable segments. Cells within the body use this process to convert carbohydrate glucose into usable nucleic acid ATP energy. Cellular Respiration is also described in greater detail in BIO101A: Introduction to Molecular and Cellular Biology in “Unit 6: Cellular Energy.”

Watching this video and pausing to take notes should take approximately 30 minutes.

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Assessment: McGraw Hill Online Learning Center: Stuart Ira Fox’s “Cell Respiration and Metabolism Quiz: Fill in the Blank”
Link: McGraw Hill Online Learning Center: Stuart Ira Fox’s “Cell Respiration and Metabolism Quiz: Fill in the Blank” (HTML)

Instructions: Complete the above quiz and then click the “Submit Answers” button at the bottom of the page for instant grading and feedback. Some of these questions require you to recall what you learned in BIO101A. For any questions that you get incorrect, go back and review the material in the “Unit 6: Cellular Respiration” of BIO101A.

Completing this assessment should take approximately 1 hour.

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3.3 Cellular Metabolism: Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Fats

Reading: Wikibooks’ Structural Biochemistry: “Metabolism”
Link: Wikibooks’ Structural Biochemistry: “Metabolism” (HTML)

Instructions: Click on the link above and read the entire webpage, which will provide you with an overview of the metabolic processes of an organism. Metabolism includes anabolism (putting things together) and catabolism (breaking things apart). Catabolism often provides energy to drive other activities in the body, whereas anabolism often requires energy. Without metabolism, cells in the body would not have energy and would eventually die.

Reading this webpage should take approximately 1 hour and 30 minutes.

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Unit 4: Movement of Materials and Cell Signaling

This unit will discuss the fluid compartments in the body and the movement of materials between them. The movement of particles from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration is known as diffusion. Sodium, for example, is found in high concentrations outside the cell and lower concentrations inside the cell. If a special channel in the cell membrane opens, sodium can diffuse across the membrane from the area of higher concentration (outside) to the area of lower concentration (inside). The diffusion of water is called osmosis. It is important to have a good understanding of how diffusion and osmosis work, because cell physiology depends on these activities. We will also review the resting membrane potential of the cell as well as cell communication through various signaling pathways. You will see sodium again as an important player in these processes. These are difficult concepts, so review the material as many times as necessary in order to get a good grasp of the material.

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4.1 Body-Fluid Compartments and Movement of Materials

Web Media: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “Diffusion and Osmosis”
Link: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “Diffusion and Osmosis” (YouTube)

Instructions: Watch the lecture for an introduction to diffusion and osmosis. You may recall from your earlier courses that diffusion is the movement of particles from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. Osmosis is simply the diffusion of water. This video does a great job covering these sometimes difficult concepts.

Watching this video and pausing to take notes should take approximately 45 minutes.

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Reading: Wikibooks’ Structural Biochemistry: “Cell Signaling Pathways/Circulatory System”
Link: Wikibooks’ Structural Biochemistry: “Cell Signaling Pathways/Circulatory System” (HTML)

Instructions: Click on the link above, and read the section titled “Body Fluids” to learn about extracellular and intracellular environments. By understanding how the body is compartmentalized, we begin to see how homeostasis is maintained and a loss of homeostasis is controlled.

Reading this section should take approximately 15 minutes.

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Web Media: YouTube: Great Pacific Media’s “Diffusion Across Cell Membranes – Passive Transport”
Link: YouTube: Great Pacific Media’s “Diffusion Across Cell Membranes – Passive Transport” (YouTube)

Instructions: Watch this brief video for a quick summary of passive transport mechanisms. This video discusses two types of diffusion – simple and facilitated diffusion – as well as osmosis, the diffusion of water. The diffusion types discussed here are passive, meaning that energy is not required.

Watching this video and pausing to take notes should take approximately 15 minutes.

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Web Media: YouTube: Neurocirujo’s “Cell Membrane, Active Transport”
Link: YouTube: Neurocirujo’s “Cell Membrane, Active Transport” (YouTube)

Instructions: Watch this video on the action of the sodium-potassium pump, a common example of active transport through a cell membrane. As the video mentions, active transport requires ATP energy to run this pump. Without ATP, the pump will not run and sodium and potassium will not move across the membrane against their concentration gradient (from low concentration to high concentration).

Watching this video and pausing to take notes should take approximately 5 minutes.

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Assessment: McGraw-Hill Online Learning Center: Stuart Ira Fox’s “Interactions between Cells and Environment Quiz: Multiple Choice”, “Interactions between Cells and Environment Quiz: True or False”, and “Interactions between Cells and Environment Quiz: Critical Thinking Exercises”
Link: McGraw-Hill Online Learning Center: Stuart Ira Fox’s “Interactions between Cells and Environment Quiz: Multiple Choice” (HTML), “Interactions between Cells and Environment Quiz: True or False” (HTML) and “Interactions between Cells and Environment Quiz: Critical Thinking Exercises” (HTML)

Instructions: Click on the links above and complete these quizzes on basic cell membrane and transport concepts. These quizzes include a lot of questions that are helpful to test your understanding at this point. For the critical thinking questions, take a second after reading each question to think about how the concepts you have just learned apply, and formulate a short, thoughtful answer. Click the “Submit Answers” button at the bottom of the pages for instant feedback. Remember, you will not receive an official grade for these assessments; these quizzes are simply to help you review what you have learned.

Completing these assessments should take approximately 2 hours.

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4.2 The Membrane Potential

Web Media: YouTube: Great Pacific Media’s “Neuron Resting Potential”
Link: YouTube: Great Pacific Media’s “Neuron Resting Potential” (YouTube)

Instructions: Click on the link above, and watch this YouTube video about the action of the resting membrane potential. Establishing a negative interior charge (voltage) is important for neurons to be ready to generate a signal (action potential). This concept is often difficult at first. Watch this video as many times as needed to be sure that you understand this process.

Watching this video and pausing to take notes should take approximately 15 minutes.

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Web Media: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “Anatomy of a Neuron”
Link: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “Anatomy of a Neuron” (YouTube)

Instructions: Click on the link above and watch this brief lecture for an introduction to the nerve cell known as the neuron. Be sure that you have a grasp on the function of dendrites and the axon. This video provides basic information that must be understood in order to next learn about signaling between nerve cells and even signaling to other types of cells.

Watching this video and pausing to take notes should take approximately 15 minutes.

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Reading: Wikibooks’ Animal Behavior/Neurophysiology: “Neurons”, “Neurophysiology”, and “Resting Potential”
Link: Wikibooks’ Animal Behavior/Neurophysiology: “Neurons”, “Neurophysiology”, and “Resting Potential” (HTML)

Instructions: Click on the links above, and read the sections “Neurons” and “Neurophysiology” through the subsection “Resting Potential” to learn about the membrane potential and the role of the K⁺ (potassium) and Na⁺ (sodium) equilibrium potentials. These concepts may seem difficult, because they are so abstract. However, it is necessary to have a good grasp of this material in order to conceptualize how neuron signaling to other neurons, muscles, and glands is carried out. When studying this, keep in mind that particles move from areas of higher concentration to areas of lower concentration (diffusion) and that at rest, sodium is higher outside the cell and potassium is higher inside the cell. Also, there are more negative proteins and chloride inside the cell than outside, making the inside negative relative to the outside. The cell must have this configuration at rest (resting membrane potential) in order for signaling to occur. This is called an electrochemical gradient. You may want to review the material several times.

Reading these sections should take approximately 45 minutes.

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4.3 Cell Signaling

Reading: Wikibooks’ Structural Biochemistry: “Cell Signaling Pathways”
Link: Wikibooks’ Structural Biochemistry: “Cell Signaling Pathways” (HTML)

Instructions: Click on the link above, and read the entire webpage to learn how a cell receives a chemical signal and translates it into an intracellular response. From this reading, you should gain an appreciation for how complex this process can be and the number of different players involved.

Reading this webpage should take approximately 30 minutes.

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Web Media: YouTube: Rutvik Shah’s “Cell Communication”
Link: YouTube: Rutvik Shah’s “Cell Communication” (YouTube)

Instructions: Click on the link above and watch this video on the transduction of a chemical signal and its translation into an intracellular response through bondage to receptor proteins.

Watching this video and pausing to take notes should take approximately 15 minutes.

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Unit 5: The Nervous System

The nervous system allows us to think and act. Typing on your keyboard happens because of signals between the brain and the neurons and muscles in your hand. Are you focusing on the difficult concepts in this course and trying to remember all that you have learned thus far? It is the nervous system that makes it all possible! Neurons signal from the brain and spinal cord (central nervous system) to the muscles, glands, and other neurons found outside the brain and spinal cord (peripheral nervous system). In this unit, we will study how the central and peripheral nervous system work together to coordinate our complicated activities and respond to environmental stimuli. You will also learn how the body reacts during emergencies or what the body perceives as emergencies in fight-or-flight reactions and the outcome of the activities involved with the autonomic nervous system, such as digestion, sleep states, and even reproduction.

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5.1 Structural Unit of the Nervous System

Reading: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “The Nervous System”
Link: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “The Nervous System” (HTML)

Instructions: Click on the link above and read this entire webpage about the nervous system. This text does a great job covering neurons and supporting cells and their activities in the brain and spinal cord and throughout the body. The following subunits will focus on various aspects of this reading assignment. You may also want to refer back to the “Anatomy of a Neuron” video that you watched in subunit 4.2.

Reading this webpage should take approximately 3 hours and 15 minutes.

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5.2 Neuronal Signaling

5.2.1 The Action Potential

Web Media: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “Sodium-Potassium Pump”, “Electronic and Action Potentials”, and “Saltatory Conduction in Neurons”
Link: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “Sodium-Potassium Pump”, “Electronic and Action Potentials”, and “Saltatory Conduction in Neurons” (YouTube)

Instructions: Now that you have a good understanding about the neuron and how it works, let’s take it one step further and delve into the physiology of this cell. Watch these three videos to learn about how the neuron signals with ionic channels in a signaling event known as the action potential. These three videos are in-depth tutorials about the physiological processes underlying neuronal signaling.

Watching these videos and pausing to take notes should take approximately 1 hour.

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5.2.2 The Synapse

Web Media: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “Neuronal Synapses” and YouTube: Great Pacific Media’s “The Synapse”
Link: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “Neuronal Synapses” (YouTube) and YouTube: Great Pacific Media’s “The Synapse” (YouTube)

Instructions: Watch these two videos to learn how action potential signals travel from one neuron to the next. This signaling process is necessary to signal between neurons and as you will learn later and is also found when neurons signal to muscles and glands in an excitatory manner.

Watching these videos and pausing to take notes should take approximately 45 minutes.

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Assessment: McGraw-Hill Online Learning Center: Stuart Ira Fox’s “Neurons and Synapses Quiz: Multiple Choice 1”, “Neurons and Synapses Quiz: Multiple Choice 2”, and “Neurons and Synapses Quiz: Fill in the Blanks”
Link: McGraw-Hill Online Learning Center: Stuart Ira Fox’s “Neurons and Synapses Quiz: Multiple Choice 1”, “Neurons and Synapses Quiz: Multiple Choice 2”, and “Neurons and Synapses Quiz: Fill in the Blanks” (HTML)

Instructions: Click on the links above and complete these quizzes after working through subunits 5.1 and 5.2. These quizzes include quite a few questions designed to review what you have learned. Click on “Submit Answers” to check your responses. These quizzes should be used as a tool to ensure that you have a good grasp of the material before you move forward with the unit.

Completing these assessments should take approximately 1 hour.

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5.2.3 Neurotransmitters

Reading: Wikibooks’ Cellular Neurobiology: “Neurotransmitter”
Link: Wikibooks’ Cellular Neurobiology: “Neurotransmitter” (HTML)

Instructions: Click on the link above and read the entire webpage to learn about the different types of neurotransmitters and their functions.

Reading this webpage should take approximately 30 minutes.

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5.3 Structure of the Nervous System

5.3.1 Central Nervous System

5.3.1.1 The Brain: Structure and Higher Mental Functions

Note: This subunit includes a discussion of memory and learning and, in particular, the physiological process of Long Term Potentiation (LTP), an important factor in forming memories. The subunit also discusses the elements of electroencephalography used to measure the brain’s electrical activity. You will also learn about automatic reflexes that keep you safe from harm and help maintain homeostasis.

Web Media: YouTube: National Institute of Mental Health’s “The Brain’s Inner Workings Part I: Structure and Function” and “The Brain’s Inner Workings Part II: Cognition”
Link: YouTube: National Institute of Mental Health’s “The Brain’s Inner Workings Part I: Structure and Function” (YouTube) and “The Brain’s Inner Workings Part II: Cognition” (YouTube)

Instructions: Click on the links above and watch both videos. Part I does an excellent job of reviewing synapses and gives a glimpse into the brain’s physiology. Part II discusses brain imaging studies and shows some of the differences between a normal brain and one suffering from mental disease. Although mental disease is still poorly understood, imaging studies help scientists to identify the differences that are found with these disorders. From this video, you should also begin to understand why it is so important to recognize what is normal in physiology in order to later understand what is considered abnormal.

Watching these videos and pausing to take notes should take approximately 30 minutes.

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Reading: Wikibooks’Introduction to Psychology: “States of Consciousness”
Link: Wikibooks’ Introduction to Psychology: “States of Consciousness” (HTML)

Instructions: Click on the link above and read the entire webpage to learn about different types of brain waves, stages of sleep, and their measurements by electroencephalogram (EEG).

Reading this webpage should take approximately 30 minutes.

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5.3.1.2 The Spinal Cord: Structure and Spinal Reflexes

Web Media: YouTube: Gene Ed’s “Spinal Cord Anatomy and Innervation” and Dr. Stephen Sullivan’s “Spinal Reflexes” and “Flexor Reflex”
Link: YouTube: Gene Ed’s “Spinal Cord Anatomy and Innervation” (YouTube) and Dr. Stephen Sullivan’s “Spinal Reflexes” (YouTube) and “Flexor Reflex” (YouTube)

Instructions: Click on the links above, and watch these three brief YouTube videos for a visual summary of the spinal cord’s function and the reflexes within the nervous system. You will notice in the Gene Ed video how neurons enter and exit the spinal cord through the dorsal and ventral sections, respectively. Recall your basic terminology. Dorsal (like the dorsal fin on a dolphin) is towards the back, whereas ventral faces the front. This terminology carries over into Dr. Sullivan’s discussion of reflexes and reflex arcs. Notice how information is routed from the receptor through the sensory neuron to the spinal cord and then back out through the motor neuron to the effector. If one synapse is involved, this is monosynaptic (mono means one), and if more than one is involved, this is polysynaptic (poly means many). If you have difficulty remembering these general terms, it may be beneficial to go back to the Unit 1 in BIO 302 Human Anatomy and review them. The third video gives one example of a common reflex arc – the flexor arc – that protects you from pain. You have used this reflex arc if you ever put your hand on a hot stove.

Watching these videos and pausing to take notes should take approximately 30 minutes.

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Assessment: McGraw Hill Online Learning Center: Stuart Ira Fox’s “The Central Nervous System Quiz: Multiple Choice 2”, “The Central Nervous System Quiz: Fill in the Blanks”, and “The Central Nervous System Quiz: Critical Thinking Exercises”
Link: McGraw Hill Online Learning Center: Stuart Ira Fox’s “The Central Nervous System Quiz: Multiple Choice 2” (HTML), “The Central Nervous System Quiz: Fill in the Blanks” (HTML), and “The Central Nervous System Quiz: Critical Thinking Exercises” (HTML)

Instructions: Click on the links above and complete these quizzes to demonstrate your understanding of the physiology of the central nervous system. Click on “Submit Answers” to check your responses against the answer key. Even though these quizzes are not officially graded, these assessments are good practice for the final exam.

Completing this assessment should take approximately 1 hour and 30 minutes.

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Reading: Wikibooks’ Anatomy and Physiology of Animal/Nervous System: “The Spinal Cord”
Link: Wikibooks’ Anatomy and Physiology of Animal/Nervous System: “The Spinal Cord” (HTML)

Instructions: Read the section titled “The Spinal Cord” to learn about the structure of the spinal cord.

Reading this section should take approximately 15 minutes.

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5.3.2 Peripheral Nervous System

The peripheral nervous system (PNS) included all of the neurons and supporting nervous system cells found outside of the central nervous system (CNS, brain and spinal cord). The PNS is divided into two divisions: sensory and motor. The sensory division has receptors that detect changes and send this information to the CNS for processing. The motor division carries information from the CNS back out to the PNS. The motor division is further divided into the somatic division, which signals to voluntary skeletal muscles, and the autonomic division, which controls involuntary activities such cardiac and smooth muscle contraction and glandular secretion. The autonomic nervous system is divided even further into the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.

Reading: Wikibooks’ Structural Biochemistry: “The Peripheral Nervous System”
Link: Wikibooks’ Structural Biochemistry: “The Peripheral Nervous System” (HTML)

Instructions: Click on the link above, scroll down to the section on “Central Nervous System,” and read only the brief subsection titled “The Peripheral Nervous System” to learn about the division of the peripheral nervous system.

Reading this section should take approximately 5 minutes.

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5.3.2.1 Sensory Division of Peripheral Nervous System

Note: The sensory division of the peripheral nervous system carries signals from the body’s cells to the central nervous system (CNS) for processing. Receptors on the neuron dendrites respond to stimuli and send this information the cell body (soma) using graded potentials. Once the cell body reaches threshold an action potential is generated and the signal is carried to the CNS.

5.3.2.2 Motor Division of Peripheral Nervous System

The motor division of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) carries signals from the central nervous system (CNS) back out the body’s cell in the peripheral nervous system. The PNS is divided into the somatic division, which signals to voluntary skeletal muscle and the autonomic division, which signals to involuntary smooth and cardiac muscle and glands.

Reading: YouTube: ThePenguinProf’s “Autonomic Nervous System”
Link: YouTube: ThePenguinProf’s “Autonomic Nervous System” (YouTube)

Instructions: Click on the link above, and watch the YouTube video for a look at the peripheral nervous system. The video does a great job contrasting the somatic and autonomic divisions of the peripheral nervous system. There is also a discussion of the differences between the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system divisions of the autonomic division. Remember the PNS is made up of the sensory and motor divisions. The motor division is further divided into the somatic and autonomic divisions. The autonomic division is even further divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions. Make sense? Make sure that you have a good grasp of this material and make a chart, if necessary.

Watching this video and pausing to take notes should take approximately 30 minutes.

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Assessment: McGraw Hill Online Learning Center: Seeley, Stephens, & Tate’s “The Autonomic Nervous System: Labeling Exercises”
Link: McGraw Hill Online Learning Center: Seeley, Stephens, & Tate’s “The Autonomic Nervous System: Labeling Exercises” (HTML)

Instructions: Complete all five of the labeling exercises to learn and review some basic concepts related to the physiology of the autonomic nervous system.

Completing these exercises should take approximately 30 minutes.

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Assessment: McGraw-Hill Online Learning Center: Stuart Ira Fox’s “The Autonomic Nervous System Quiz: Multiple Choice 1”, “The Autonomic Nervous System Quiz: Multiple Choice 2”, and “The Autonomic Nervous System Quiz: Critical Thinking Exercises”
Link: McGraw-Hill Online Learning Center: Stuart Ira Fox’s “The Autonomic Nervous System Quiz: Multiple Choice 1” (HTML), “The Autonomic Nervous System Quiz: Multiple Choice 2” (HTML), and “The Autonomic Nervous System Quiz: Critical Thinking Exercises” (HTML)

Instructions: Click on the links above and complete the quizzes to demonstrate your understanding of the physiology of the autonomic nervous system. Click on “Submit Answers” to check your responses against the answer key.

Completing these assessments should take approximately 1 hour and 30 minutes.

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Unit 6: The Sensory System

This unit reviews the mechanics behind sensory reception and our interpretation of sensory input. In this unit, you will learn how our sensory organs receive external stimuli, such as noise, images, food, etc., and how the brain processes and translates them so that they are perceived.

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6.1 General Properties of Special Senses

Reading: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “Senses”
Link: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “Senses” (HTML)

Instructions: Click on the link above and read this entire webpage to understand how our special senses are more directly linked to the central nervous system. Attempt the review questions at the end of the reading. After completing the questions, click on the link at the beginning of the section to review the answers.

Reading this webpage and answering the review questions should take approximately 2 hours.

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6.2 Taste

Web Media: WISC-Online’s “The Sense of Taste”
Link: WISC-Online’s “The Sense of Taste” (Flash)

Instructions: This is a simple, interactive overview of the sense of taste. Notice how the structure of the taste bud (onion shaped) is important for the function of taste. You may want to review the 12 Cranial Nerves when you are given the option to do so in this exercise. At the end, practice what you learned with the labeling exercise.

Studying this material should take approximately 1 hour.

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6.3 Smell

Web Media: WISC-Online’s “The Sense of Smell”
Link: WISC-Online’s “The Sense of Smell” (Flash)

Instructions: This short interactive animation shows how chemicals around us are detected and converted into the sense of smell. The sounds associated with the animation may not be especially appealing, so if it bothers you, turn down your volume.

Studying this animation should take approximately 1 hour.

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6.4 Vision

Web Media: YouTube: Bausch & Lomb’s “A Journey through the Human Eye: How We See”
Link: YouTube: Bausch & Lomb’s “A Journey through the Human Eye: How We See” (YouTube)

Instructions: Click on the link above, and watch this YouTube video for a brief, simplified visual illustration of the focusing mechanism in the eye. This is a very basic video that only begins to describe the complexity of the human eye.

Watching this video and pausing to take notes should take approximately 30 minutes.

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6.5 Hearing and Equilibrium

Assessment: McGraw-Hill Online Learning Center: Seeley, Stephens, & Tate’s “The Special Senses: Chapter Quiz”
Link: McGraw-Hill Online Learning Center: Seeley, Stephens, & Tate’s “The Special Senses: Chapter Quiz” (HTML)

Instructions: Complete the above quiz after working through all the material in this unit in order to test your understanding of sensory system physiology.

Completing this assessment should take approximately 2 hours.

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Web Media: YouTube: Siemens’ “How the Human Ear Works”
Link: YouTube: Siemens’ “How the Human Ear Works” (YouTube)

Instructions: Click on the link above and watch the video for a brief visual illustration of the auditory mechanism of the ear. Although this video is short, it provides a lot of good information about how the ear works to transmit sound waves.

Watching this video and pausing to take notes should take approximately 30 minutes.

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Unit 7: The Muscular System

The muscular system allows the body to move, inside and out. Often we think of the muscular system as big biceps like Popeye or strong leg muscles like you might see on Olympic runners. While these skeletal muscles are important, the muscular system is much more than just skeletal muscle. The cardiac muscles that make up the myocardium of the heart keep the heart contracting 24 hours a day 7 days a week. Unlike skeletal muscle that gets tired and we control (voluntary), cardiac muscle never fatigues and we have no control over it (involuntary). A third type of muscle is smooth muscle. It is also involuntary and can be found lining the gastrointestinal track, around the alveoli in the lungs, and even in the female uterus, among other places. Smooth muscle has long rhythmic contractions that are involuntary. Unless they are super strong – like in childbirth – or they are erratic and cause stomach cramping, we do not even realize that they are contracting. All three muscle types work hard to move things – for example blood (cardiac), food (smooth), and our pencil to take notes (skeletal). In this unit, we will explore how muscles contract to cause this movement and learn a bit more how these three muscle types are alike and differ. Finally, we will make the important connection between the muscular system and other systems in the body, such as the nervous system.

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7.1 Types of Muscle Tissue

Reading: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “The Muscular System”
Link: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “The Muscular System” (HTML)

Instructions: Click on the link above and read this chapter on the muscular system. As you read note the key differences between skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscles and consider how each muscle type has a particular structure that helps it to carry out its own function. This chapter contains a lot of information. It may be helpful to make a chart with the three muscle types and their characteristics and location.

Reading this chapter and taking notes should take 2 hours and 30 minutes.

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7.2 Skeletal Muscles

Web Media: YouTube: Great Pacific Media’s “Skeletal Muscle Structure”
Link: YouTube: Great Pacific Media’s “Skeletal Muscle Structure” (YouTube)

Instructions: Click on the link above and watch this video for a brief visual illustration of the structure of skeletal muscles. The structure function relationship is very important in skeletal muscle. Notice how the cross bridges allow for contraction and when relaxed, myosin binding sites are covered to prevent cross bridges from forming.

Watching this video and pausing to take notes should take approximately 30 minutes.

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Web Media: YouTube: Garland Science’s “Skeletal Muscle Contraction”
Link: YouTube: Garland Science’s “Skeletal Muscle Contraction” (YouTube)

Instructions: Click on the link above and watch this video to visualize the process of contraction in skeletal muscle tissue. Notice the complexity of this process! Can you believe that this process is happening in milliseconds?

Watching this video and pausing to take notes should take approximately 15 minutes.

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Web Media: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “Myosin and Actin”, “Tropomyosin and Troponin”, “Role of the Sarcoplasmic Reticulum”, and “Anatomy of a Muscle Cell”
Link: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “Myosin and Actin” , “Tropomyosin and Troponin” , “Role of the Sarcoplasmic Reticulum” , and “Anatomy of a Muscle Cell”

Instructions: Watch these videos to review the specifics of muscle contraction.

Watching these videos and pausing to take notes should take approximately 1 hour and 15 minutes.

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7.3 Smooth Muscle

Web Media: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “Three Types of Muscle”
Link: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “Three Types of Muscle” (YouTube)

Instructions: Watch this video which describes in simple and clear detail the structure and function of smooth muscle, skeletal muscle, and cardiac muscle.

Watching this video and taking notes should take approximately 30 minutes.

Terms of Use: This resource is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 United States License. It is attributed to Khan Academy, and the original version can be found here.
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7.4 Cardiac Muscle

Web Media: YouTube: “Anatomy and Physiology in Focus: Cardiac Tissue”
Link: YouTube: “Anatomy and Physiology in Focus: Cardiac Tissue” (YouTube)

Instructions: This is a brief video, but it includes a lot of detailed information. Cardiac muscle cells are shown and the key features of these cells are illustrated. Keep in mind as you view this video that similar cells are working in your body so that your heart continues to contract.

Watching this video and pausing to take notes should take you approximately 15 minutes.

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Unit 8: The Endocrine System

Hormones secreted from our endocrine glands regulate numerous processes in our bodies. Testosterone, estrogen, and growth hormone, among others control our development in the womb and following birth into young adulthood. It is also testosterone and estrogen that regulates reproductive function. Thyroid hormones control our metabolism and imbalances may lead to weigh loss or gain, anxiety or depression, sleep and eating disturbances, and even hair and skin changes. Insulin and glucagon from the pancreas determines how glucose is regulated and used by the body cells and keeps us form having blood sugar levels that are too low or too high. In conjunction with the nervous system, the endocrine system is instrumental in maintaining homeostasis.

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8.1 Hormone Structures, Classification, and Mechanisms

Reading: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “The Endocrine System”
Link: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “The Endocrine System” (HTML)

Instructions: Click on the link above and read this entire webpage to understand the endocrine system structure and function. This reading also provides a description of hormone classification and function. This is a very complex system with a lot of different factors involved. Additionally, control mechanisms are in place on multiple levels. You may find that making a summary chart is helpful. The chart should contain the hormone name, abbreviation, its source and target, and its action.

Reading this webpage should take approximately 2 hours.

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Web Media: YouTube: Paul Andersen’s “The Endocrine System”
Link: YouTube: Paul Andersen’s “The Endocrine System” (YouTube)

Instructions: Click on the link above and watch this video for an overview of the endocrine system and its physiological role in the body.

Watching this video and pausing to take notes should take approximately 30 minutes.

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8.2 Hormone Interactions

Reading: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “Antagonistic Hormones”
Link: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “Antagonistic Hormones” (HTML)

Instructions: Click on the link above and read the section titled “Antagonistic Hormones” to understand how antagonistic hormones maintain homeostasis.

Reading this section should take approximately 30 minutes.

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8.3 Pituitary Gland

Reading: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “The Pituitary Gland”
Link: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “The Pituitary Gland” (HTML)

Instructions: Read the section entitled “The Pituitary Gland” to learn about the hormones that are released from the posterior and anterior pituitary glands.

Reading this section should take approximately 5 minutes.

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Reading: YouTube: Neurocirujo’s “Pituitary Gland”
Link: YouTube: Neurocirujo’s “Pituitary Gland” (YouTube)

Instructions: Click on the link above and watch this video for an illustration of the hypothalamic-pituitary axis, or the feedback loop among the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and thyroid that ultimately supports and regulates the action of the hormone thyroxin.

Watching this video and pausing to take notes should take approximately 10 minutes.

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8.4 Adrenal Glands

Web Media: YouTube: ADAM’s “Adrenal Glands Animation”
Link: YouTube: ADAM’s “Adrenal Glands Animation” (YouTube)

Instructions: Click on the link above and watch this video for a review of how adrenal gland secretions affect the body.

Watching this video and pausing to take notes should take approximately 5 minutes.

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Reading: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “The Adrenal Glands”
Link: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “The Adrenal Glands” (HTML)

Instructions: Read the section titled “The Adrenal Glands” to learn how these glands function.

Reading this section should take approximately 30 minutes.

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8.5 Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands

Reading: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “Thyroid Gland”
Link: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “Thyroid Gland” (HTML)

Instructions: Read the section titled “The Thyroid Gland” to learn how this gland functions.

Reading this section should take approximately 15 minutes.

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8.6 Other Glands: Pancreas, Pineal Gland, and Reproductive Organs

Web Media: YouTube: Great Pacific Media’s “The Pancreas, Testes, Ovaries Are Endocrine Glands”
Link: YouTube: Great Pacific Media’s “The Pancreas, Testes, Ovaries Are Endocrine Glands” (YouTube)

Instructions: Click on the link above and watch this brief video for a visual illustration of the hormones released by the pancreas and sex organs.

Watching this video and pausing to take notes should take approximately 15 minutes.

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Reading: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “The Pancreas”, “Sex Organs”, and “Pineal Gland”
Link: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “The Pancreas”, “Sex Organs”, and “Pineal Gland” (HTML)

Instructions: Read the sections titled “The Pancreas,” “Sex Organs,” and “Pineal Gland” to learn about the hormonal functions of these organs and hormonal physiological effects on the body.

Reading these sections should take approximately 30 minutes.

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Assessment: McGraw Hill Online Learning Center: Seeley, Stephens, & Tate’s “Endocrine Glands – Clinical Application”
Link: McGraw Hill Online Learning Center: Seeley, Stephens, & Tate’s “Endocrine Glands – Clinical Application” (HTML)

Instructions: Read this example and respond to the questions. Then, click the “Submit Answers” button at the bottom of the page for instant grading and feedback.

Completing this assessment should take approximately 1 hour.

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Assessment: McGraw Hill Online Learning Center: Seeley, Stephens, & Tate’s “Endocrine Glands – Chapter Quiz” and Stuart Ira Fox’s “Endocrine Glands – Critical Thinking Exercises”
Link: McGraw Hill Online Learning Center: Seeley, Stephens, & Tate’s “Endocrine Glands – Chapter Quiz” (HTML) and Stuart Ira Fox’s “Endocrine Glands – Critical Thinking Exercises” (HTML)

Instructions: Click on the links above and complete the quizzes to demonstrate your understanding of endocrine system physiology after working through the materials.

Completing these assessments should take approximately 1 hour.

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Unit 9: The Cardiovascular System

The heart and the circulatory system use blood to deliver oxygen and nutrients to the body cells and to remove carbon dioxide and wastes. The heart acts as a pump contracting hard to squeeze blood to the lungs or to the body cells and does this 24 hours a day 7 days a week. If you have ever felt your heart beating, you have felt the power of this organ. If the heart started to fail, blood would not get to all of the body cells as readily and the cells might die. Waste would increase, because blood might not make it to the kidney to be filtered, and carbon dioxide would build up, because there would be less passes through the lungs. Clearly, the pumping action of the heart is important! In this unit, we will study the processes behind a properly functioning circulatory system and the important interactions with other systems such as the renal and respiratory systems.

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9.1 Circulatory Systems and the Heart

Web Media: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “Circulatory System and the Heart”
Link: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “Circulatory System and the Heart” (YouTube)

Instructions: Click on the link above and watch this lecture for an introduction to the circulatory system and the heart.

Watching this video and pausing to take notes should take approximately 30 minutes.

Terms of Use: This video is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerives United States License 3.0. It is attributed to the Khan Academy.
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9.2 The Heart

Reading: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “Cardiac Cycle” and “Blood Pressure”
Link: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “Cardiac Cycle” (HTML) and “Blood Pressure” (HTML)

Instructions: Read the sections titled “Cardiac Cycle” and “Blood Pressure” to learn about the contraction and relaxation cycle of the heart as well as the blood pressure.

Reading these sections should take approximately 30 minutes.

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Web Media: YouTube: Michael Maxin’s “Heart Anatomy”
Link: YouTube: Michael Maxin’s “Heart Anatomy” (YouTube)

Instructions: Click on the link above and watch this brief video to review the anatomy of the heart.

Watching this video and pausing to take notes should take approximately 15 minutes.

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Reading: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “The Cardiovascular System” and “Cardiac Muscle”
Link: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “The Cardiovascular System” (HTML) and “Cardiac Muscle” (HTML)

Instructions: Click on the links above and read these webpages in their entirety to learn about the cardiovascular system’s structure. The heart acts as a pump to move the blood throughout the body. Without the heart, the body’s cells could not get oxygen and nutrients as well as could not have carbon dioxide and wastes removed.

Reading these webpages should take approximately 3 hours.

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Reading: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “The Heart’s Electrical Conduction System” and “The ECG” through “Cardiac Muscle Contraction”
Link: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “The Heart’s Electrical Conduction System” (HTML) and “The ECG” (HTML) through “Cardiac Muscle Contraction” (HTML)

Instructions: Read the entire section titled “The Heart’s Electrical Conduction System,” and read the section “The ECG” only through “Cardiac Muscle Contraction” to learn the specific mechanics of the heartbeat and how it is controlled by electrochemical impulses. The section entitled “The ECG” explains how these electrical activities are measured.

Reading these sections should take approximately 1 hour.

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Assessment: McGraw-Hill Online Learning Center: Seeley, Stephens, & Tate’s “Cardiovascular System: The Heart – Clinical Application One” and “Cardiovascular System: The Heart – Clinical Application Two”
Link: McGraw-Hill Online Learning Center: Seeley, Stephens, & Tate’s “Cardiovascular System: The Heart – Clinical Application One” (HTML) and “Cardiovascular System: The Heart – Clinical Application Two” (HTML)

Instructions: Click on the links above, read the examples, and respond to the questions that follow after working through the materials in this subunit. Click the “Submit Answers” button at the bottom of each webpage for instant feedback.

Completing these assessments should take approximately 2 hours.

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Assessment: McGraw-Hill Online Learning Center: Seeley, Stephens, & Tate’s “Cardiovascular System: The Heart – Chapter Quiz”
Link: McGraw-Hill Online Learning Center: Seeley, Stephens, & Tate’s “Cardiovascular System: The Heart – Chapter Quiz” (HTML)

Instructions: Complete the above quiz after completing this section. Click the “Submit Answers” button for instant grading and feedback.

Completing this assessment should take approximately 1 hour.

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9.3 Blood Vessels

Reading: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “The Circulatory System” and “Cardiovascular Pathways”
Link: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “The Circulatory System” (HTML) and “Cardiovascular Pathways” (HTML)

Instructions: Read the sections titled “The Circulatory System” and “Cardiovascular Pathways” to learn about the circulatory mechanism’s functional parts and how each contributes to blood flow.

Reading these sections should take approximately 45 minutes.

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9.4 Cardiovascular Diseases

Assessment: McGraw-Hill Online Learning Center: Seeley, Stephens, & Tate’s “Cardiovascular System: Peripheral Circulation and Regulation – Labeling Exercises”
Link: McGraw-Hill Online Learning Center: Seeley, Stephens, & Tate’s “Cardiovascular System: Peripheral Circulation and Regulation – Labeling Exercises” (HTML)

Instructions: Click on the links for the adrenal medullary mechanism and the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone mechanism, and complete these exercises. These assessments emphasize the influence of various body systems on how the cardiovascular system functions.

Completing this assessment should take approximately 1 hour.

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Reading: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “Cardiovascular Disease”
Link: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “Cardiovascular Disease” (HTML)

Instructions: Read the section titled “Cardiovascular Disease” to learn about the different types of cardiovascular disease and how they affect the operation of the circulatory system.

Reading this section should take approximately 30 minutes.

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9.5 Blood

Web Media: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “Hemoglobin”
Link: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “Hemoglobin” (YouTube)

Instructions: Click on the link above and watch this lecture for an introduction to hemoglobin.

Watching this video and pausing to take notes should take approximately 30 minutes.

Terms of Use: This video is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerives United States License 3.0. It is attributed to the Khan Academy.
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Web Media: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “Red Blood Cells”
Link: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “Red Blood Cells” (YouTube)

Instructions: Click on the link above and watch this lecture for an introduction to red blood cells.

Watching this lecture and pausing to take notes should take approximately 30 minutes.

Terms of Use: This video is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerives United States License 3.0. It is attributed to the Khan Academy.
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Reading: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “Blood Physiology: Overview”
Link: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “Blood Physiology: Overview” (HTML)

Instructions: Click on the link above and read this webpage on the physiology of blood through the section titled “Hemostasis.” This webpage will also identify and discuss the diseases that can impact the effectiveness of blood function.

Reading this webpage should take approximately 1 hour.

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Web Media: YouTube: American Society of Hematology’s “Components of Blood and Their Importance” and Gene Ed’s “Hemostasis”
Link: YouTube: American Society of Hematology’s “Components of Blood and Their Importance” (YouTube) and Gene Ed’s “Hemostasis” (YouTube)

Instructions: Click on the links above and watch thesee videos to learn about the plasma, blood cells, and the process of hemostasis.

Watching these videos and pausing to take notes should take approximately 10 minutes.

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Web Media: YouTube: American Society of Hematology’s “Sickle Cell Anemia” and “Spherocytosis”
Link: YouTube: American Society of Hematology’s “Sickle Cell Anemia” (YouTube) and “Spherocytosis” (YouTube)

Instructions: Click on the links above and watch these videos, which discuss two blood diseases and how they impact physiology.

Watching these videos and pausing to take notes should take approximately 10 minutes.

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Assessment: McGraw-Hill Online Learning Center: Seeley, Stephens, & Tate’s “Cardiovascular System: The Blood – Clinical Application”
Link: McGraw-Hill Online Learning Center: Seeley, Stephens, & Tate’s “Cardiovascular System: The Blood – Clinical Application” (HTML)

Instructions: This assessment is for Unit 9. Read this example of a clinical application of knowledge of blood physiology, and respond to the questions that follow. Click the “Submit Answers” button at the bottom of the page for instant feedback.

Completing this assessment should take approximately 30 minutes.

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Assessment: McGraw Hill Online Learning Center: Stuart Ira Fox’s “Heart and Circulation Quiz: Multiple Choice 1”, “Heart and Circulation Quiz: Multiple Choice 2”, “Cardiac Output Quiz: Multiple Choice 2”, and “Cardiac Output Quiz: Critical Thinking Exercises”
Link: McGraw Hill Online Learning Center: Stuart Ira Fox’s “Heart and Circulation Quiz: Multiple Choice 1” (HTML), “Heart and Circulation Quiz: Multiple Choice 2” (HTML), “Cardiac Output Quiz: Multiple Choice 2” (HTML), and “Cardiac Output Quiz: Critical Thinking Exercises” (HTML)

Instructions: Click on the links above and complete the quizzes to demonstrate your understanding of the circulatory system. For the critical thinking questions, take a second after reading each question to think about how the concepts you have just learned apply and formulate a short, thoughtful answer. Click the “Submit Answers” button for instant feedback.

Completing these assessments should take approximately 2 hours.

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Unit 10: The Respiratory System

The respiratory system depends on the heart to pump blood to the lungs. In capillaries found in the lungs, carbon dioxide detaches from the hemoglobin in red blood cells and enters the air sacs known as alveoli. With exhalation, carbon dioxide is breathed out. With inhalation, oxygen is breathed into the alveoli. It moves out of the air sacs into the capillaries and attaches to the hemoglobin in red blood cells. The cells then carry oxygen back to the heart and out to the body’s cells. The gas exchange occurs each time we breathe. When we hold our breath, oxygen cannot get into the lungs and carbon dioxide cannot leave. The body cells may become oxygen deprived and carbon dioxide builds up. You know what happens next, we take a breath!

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10.1 Structure and Function of the Respiratory System

Web Media: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “The Lungs and Pulmonary System”
Link: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “The Lungs and Pulmonary System” (YouTube)

Instructions: Click on the link above and watch this lecture for an introduction to the lungs and pulmonary system.

Watching this lecture and pausing to take notes should take approximately 45 minutes.

Terms of Use: This video is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerives United States License 3.0. It is attributed to the Khan Academy.
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Reading: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “The Respiratory System”
Link: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “The Respiratory System” (HTML)

Instructions: Click on the link above and read this webpage to understand how the body takes in oxygen and gets rids of carbon dioxide. You may recall that the red blood cells are involved in the process of delivering oxygen to the body cells and bringing carbon dioxide back to the lungs to be exhaled. All the systems work together!

Reading this webpage should take approximately 1 hour and 30 minutes.

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Reading: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “Breathing and Lung Mechanics”
Link: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “Breathing and Lung Mechanics” (HTML)

Instructions: Read the section titled “Breathing and Lung Mechanics” to learn about the process of breathing. Pay attention to the specifics of each step in the process.

Reading this section should take approximately 15 minutes.

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Reading: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “Homeostasis and Gas Exchange”
Link: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “Homeostasis and Gas Exchange” (HTML)

Instructions: Read the section titled “Homeostasis and Gas Exchange” to learn how the actions of the respiratory system help to maintain homeostasis in the body.

Reading this section should take approximately 15 minutes.

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Web Media: YouTube: CosmoLearning’s “Oxygen Transport”
Link: YouTube: CosmoLearning’s “Oxygen Transport” (YouTube)

Instructions: Click on the link above and watch this video for a quick illustration of the lungs’ role in gas exchange.

Watching this video and pausing to take notes should take approximately 15 minutes.

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10.2 Respiratory Disorders

Reading: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “Problems Associated with the Respiratory Tract and Breathing” through “Sleep Apnea”
Link: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “Problems Associated with the Respiratory Tract and Breathing” (HTML) through “Sleep Apnea” (HTML)

Instructions: Read the sections titled “Problems Associated with the Respiratory Tract” through “Sleep Apnea” to learn ways in which the respiratory system’s effectiveness can be compromised.

Reading these sections should take approximately 15 minutes.

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Web Media: YouTube: Tom Weis Long’s “Understanding Asthma” and Health Science Channel’s “Pulmonary Fibrosis”
Link: YouTube: Tom Weis Long’s “Understanding Asthma” (YouTube) and Health Science Channel’s “Pulmonary Fibrosis” (YouTube)

Instructions: Click on the links above and watch these two videos for an illustration of how these two disorders affect the physiology of the respiratory system.

Watching these videos and pausing to take notes should take approximately 15 minutes.

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Assessment: McGraw-Hill Online Learning Center: Seeley, Stephens, & Tate’s “Respiratory System – Clinical Application One” and “Respiratory System – Clinical Application Two”
Link: McGraw-Hill Online Learning Center: Seeley, Stephens, & Tate’s “Respiratory System – Clinical Application One” (HTML) and “Respiratory System – Clinical Application Two” (HTML)

Instructions: Click on the links above, read these examples, and respond to the questions that follow after working through all of the materials in Unit 10. Click the “Submit Answers” button at the bottom of the page for instant feedback.

Completing these assignments should take approximately 2 hours.

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Assessment: McGraw-Hill Online Learning Center: Stuart Ira Fox’s “Respiratory Physiology Quiz: Multiple Choice 1”, “Respiratory Physiology Quiz: Fill in the Blanks”, and “Respiratory Physiology Quiz: Critical Thinking Exercises”
Link: McGraw-Hill Online Learning Center: Stuart Ira Fox’s “Respiratory Physiology Quiz: Multiple Choice 1” (HTML), “Respiratory Physiology Quiz: Fill in the Blanks” (HTML), and “Respiratory Physiology Quiz: Critical Thinking Exercises” (HTML)

Instructions: Click on the links above and complete these quizzes to demonstrate your understanding of respiratory physiology after you have worked through all of the materials in this unit. For the critical thinking questions, take a second after reading each question to think about how the concepts you have just learned apply and formulate a short, thoughtful answer. Click the “Submit Answers” button for instant feedback.

Completing these assessments should take approximately 3 hours.

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Unit 11: The Urinary System

The Urinary System, also known as the renal or excretory system, plays a significant role in filtering out the waste that our body produces. As we learned in the cardiovascular system unit, the heart pumps blood to the kidneys for filtration. The kidneys remove nitrogenous wastes and form urine to flush it from the body. The kidneys are also involved in water balance. Think about the last time that you were dehydrated. What color was your urine? Dark? This is because the kidneys excreted body wastes in as little water as possible to try and conserve. On the other hand, if you are well hydrated, you will likely find that your urine is light yellow to almost clear. Lesser known functions of the kidney include stimulation of the bone marrow to produce red blood cells, regulation of electrolyte balance, and a major role in acid-base buffering. This unit will focus on these various renal activities.

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11.1 The Urinary System: Structures and Functions of the Organs

Reading: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “The Urinary System”
Link: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “The Urinary System” (HTML)

Instructions: Click on the link above and read this webpage about the urinary system, which is sometimes also called the renal system. The kidneys filter wastes from the blood and form urine. Urine is stored in the bladder and a series of tubes drain urine from the kidneys to the bladder (ureters) and then from the bladder to outside the body (urethra).

Reading this section should take approximately 2 hours.

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Web Media: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “The Kidney and Nephron”
Link: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “The Kidney and Nephron” (YouTube)

Instructions: Click on the link above and watch this video for a brief review of the urinary system’s structure and function.

Watching this video and pausing to take notes should take approximately 45 minutes.

Terms of Use: This video is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerives United States License 3.0. It is attributed to the Khan Academy.
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Web Media: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “Secondary Active Transport in the Nephron”
Link: YouTube: Khan Academy’s “Secondary Active Transport in the Nephron” (YouTube)

Instructions: Click on the link above and watch the lecture in its entirety for an introduction to functions of the nephron.

Watching this video and pausing to take notes should take approximately 30 minutes.

Terms of Use: This video is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerives United States License 3.0. It is attributed to the Khan Academy.
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11.2 Functions of the Urinary System: Filtration, Reabsorption, Secretion, Excretion

Reading: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “Formation of Urine”
Link: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “Formation of Urine” (HTML)

Instructions: Read the section titled “Formation of Urine” to learn the specific steps involved in creating urine for excretion.

Reading this section should take less than 15 minutes.

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11.3 Renal Water and Salt/Electrolytes Balance

Reading: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “Maintaining Water-Salt Balance”
Link: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “Maintaining Water-Salt Balance” (HTML)

Instructions: Read the section titled “Maintaining Water-Salt Balance” to learn how the kidneys separate waste from molecules necessary to the body (water, salt) in filtrate before excretion.

Reading this section should take approximately 15 minutes.

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Web Media: YouTube: University of Rhode Island Animation’s “Diuretic Action in the Kidney”
Link: YouTube: University of Rhode Island Animation’s “Diuretic Action in the Kidney” (YouTube)

Instructions: Click on the link above and watch this brief video for a visual illustration of the process by which the kidneys help maintain a water-salt balance in the body.

Watching this video and pausing to take notes should take approximately 30 minutes.

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Assessment: McGraw-Hill Online Learning Center: Seeley, Stephens, & Tate’s “Urinary System – Clinical Application”
Link: McGraw-Hill Online Learning Center: Seeley, Stephens, & Tate’s “Urinary System – Clinical Application” (HTML)

Instructions: Read this example and respond to the questions that follow after working through the materials in this unit. Click the “Submit Answers” button at the bottom of the page for instant feedback.

Completing this activity should take approximately 45 minutes.

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Assessment: McGraw-Hill Online Learning Center: Stuart Ira Fox’s “Kidney Physiology Quiz: Multiple Choice 1”, “Kidney Physiology Quiz: Multiple Choice 2”, and “Kidney Physiology Quiz: Critical Thinking Exercises”
Link: McGraw-Hill Online Learning Center: Stuart Ira Fox’s “Kidney Physiology Quiz: Multiple Choice 1” (HTML), “Kidney Physiology Quiz: Multiple Choice 2” (HTML), and “Kidney Physiology Quiz: Critical Thinking Exercises” (HTML)

Instructions: Click on the links above and complete these quizzes to demonstrate your understanding of the urinary system.

Completing these assessments should take approximately 1 hour.

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Unit 12: The Digestive System

The digestive system begins in the mouth and continues through the stomach and intestines, ending at the anus. In the mouth, chemical and mechanical digestion begins. Food moves down the esophagus and into the stomach for further digestion. Next, in the small intestines final chemical breakdown and absorption occurs. What is left over after absorption moves into the large intestines, where mainly only water is absorbed. This waste material is further broken down by bacteria in the large intestines and finally leaves the body through the anus via a bowel movement. We control when we eat, but once we swallow our food, the process until fecal matter leaves the anus is involuntary. This unit discusses the steps of the digestive system from ingestion through elimination.

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12.1 The Digestive System: Structures and Functions of the Organs

Reading: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “The Gastrointestinal System”
Link: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “The Gastrointestinal System” (HTML)

Instructions: Click on the link above and read this webpage to understand how food moves from the mouth to the stomach and then into the intestines and finally ends at the anus. Pay close attention to the processes of digestion and absorption.

Reading this section should take approximately 1 hour.

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Web Media: YouTube: dannishi’s “The Digestive System”
Link: YouTube: dannishi’s “The Digestive System” (YouTube)

Instructions: Click on the link above and watch this brief video for an illustration of the structure and function of the digestive system.

Watching this video and pausing to take notes should take approximately 15 minutes.

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Web Media: YouTube: Dr. Fabian’s “Pancreas & Gallbladder”
Link: YouTube: Dr. Fabian’s “Pancreas & Gallbladder” (YouTube)

Instructions: Click on the link above and watch this video for a review of the functions of the liver, pancreas, and gallbladder.

Watching this video and pausing to take notes should take approximately 15 minutes.

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12.2 Functions of the Digestive System: Ingestion, Digestion, Absorption, Elimination

Web Media: YouTube: Apollo Hospitals Dhaka’s “The Stages of Digestion”
Link: YouTube: Apollo Hospitals Dhaka’s “The Stages of Digestion” (YouTube)

Instructions: Click on the link above and watch this video for a quick overview of the digestive process.

Watching this video and pausing to take notes should take approximately 15 minutes.

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12.3 Disorders and Dysfunctions

Reading: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “Conditions Affecting the Esophagus” through “Gastrointestinal Dysfunctions”
Link: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “Conditions Affecting the Esophagus” (HTML) through “Gastrointestinal Dysfunctions” (HTML)

Instructions: Read from “Conditions Affecting the Esophagus” through “Gastrointestinal Dysfunctions” to learn the ways in which the effectiveness of the gastrointestinal system can be compromised.

Reading these sections should take approximately 1 hour to complete.

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Assessment: McGraw-Hill Online Learning Center: Seeley, Stephens, & Tate’s “Digestive System: Clinical Application One”, “Digestive System: Clinical Application Two”, and “Digestive System: Clinical Application Three”
Link: McGraw-Hill Online Learning Center: Seeley, Stephens, & Tate’s “Digestive System: Clinical Application One” (HTML), “Digestive System: Clinical Application Two” (HTML), and “Digestive System: Clinical Application Three” (HTML)

Instructions: Read this example of a clinical application of knowledge of digestive system physiology. Click the “Submit Answers” button at the bottom of the page for instant grading and feedback.

Completing these assessments should take approximately 2 hours.

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Assessment: McGraw Hill Online Learning Center: Stuart Ira Fox’s “Digestive System Quiz: Multiple Choice 1”, “Digestive System: Fill in the Blank”, and “Digestive System: Critical Thinking Exercises”
Link: McGraw Hill Online Learning Center: Stuart Ira Fox’s “Digestive System Quiz: Multiple Choice 1” (HTML), “Digestive System: Fill in the Blank” (HTML), and “Digestive System: Critical Thinking Exercises” (HTML)

Instructions: Click on the links above and complete thesequizzes to demonstrate your understanding of digestive system physiology. Click the “Submit Answers” button for instant grading and feedback.

Completing these assessments should take approximately 3 hours.

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Unit 13: Metabolism

All systems contribute to an organism’s metabolism. The digestive system absorbs nutrients such as glucose, lipids, and amino acids that can be used by body cells for energy. The endocrine system is involved in the uptake, storage, and use of these molecules. The heart pumps blood containing oxygen, which is needed by the body cells to carry out metabolic processes. Other systems in the body have roles in this process as well. In this unit, we will integrate our new understanding of each system to understand how they all work together to affect our metabolism and contribute to maintaining homeostasis.

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13.1 Metabolism: Review

Web Media: YouTube: BiologixTV’s “What Is Metabolism?”
Link: YouTube: BiologixTV’s “What Is Metabolism?” (YouTube)

Instructions: Click on the link above and watch this brief video for a review of the resting metabolic rate and exercise metabolic rate.

Watching this video and pausing to take notes should take approximately 30 minutes.

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Reading: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “Cell Metabolism”
Link: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “Cell Metabolism” (HTML)

Instructions: Read the section titled “Cell Metabolism.” Remember what you learned earlier about cellular respiration and use this reading as a review of the metabolic processes in the cell.

Reading this section should take approximately 30 minutes.

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13.2 Insulin and Glucagon

Reading: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “Control, Coordination, and Homeostasis – Diabetes Mellitus”
Link: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “Control, Coordination, and Homeostasis – Diabetes Mellitus” (HTML)

Instructions: Click on the link above and read the section titled “Diabetes Mellitus,” including “Control of Insulin Secretion” to learn about the different types of diabetes mellitus. Type II diabetes mellitus is on the rise because of obesity and decreased exercise. Notice the key differences between its cause and that of Type I diabetes mellitus.

Reading this section should take less than 15 minutes.

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Reading: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “Control, Coordination, and Homeostasis – Blood Glucose”
Link: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “Control, Coordination, and Homeostasis – Blood Glucose” (HTML)

Instructions: Click on the link above and read the section titled “Blood Glucose,” which describes the role of insulin and glucagon in regulating the glucose level.

Reading this section should take approximately 15 minutes.

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Assessment: McGraw-Hill Online Learning Center: Stuart Ira Fox’s “Metabolism Regulation Quiz: Multiple Choice 1” and “Metabolism Regulation Quiz: Multiple Choice 2”
Link: McGraw-Hill Online Learning Center: Stuart Ira Fox’s “Metabolism Regulation Quiz: Multiple Choice 1” (HTML) and “Metabolism Regulation Quiz: Multiple Choice 2” (HTML)

Instructions: Answer all of the questions on both quizzes. Click the “Submit Answers” button for instant feedback.

Completing these assessments should take approximately 1 hour.

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Unit 14: The Reproductive System

The reproductive system controls the production of sex hormones, gender determination, and most importantly reproduction. There are distinct differences between males and females, including those that are obvious. Hormonal production is a key feature of the reproductive system, and additionally, hormones regulate the function of this system in an intricate balance. You may recall some of these hormones from our endocrine system unit. In this unit, we will learn about the female and male reproductive systems function alone and in conjunction with one another to produce life. In this capacity, we will discuss the processes of fertilization, pregnancy, and labor.

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14.1 Sexual Reproduction

Reading: Boundless: “Brief Overview of Male and Female Reproductive System”
Link: Boundless: “Brief Overview of Male and Female Reproductive System” (PDF)

Instructions: Read this article, which provides an overview of human sexual reproduction, and both male and female reproductive systems.

Reading this article should take approximately 45 minutes.

Terms of Use: This resource is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License. It is attributed to Boundless, and the original version can be found here.
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14.2 Male Reproductive System

Reading: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “The Male Reproductive System”
Link: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “The Male Reproductive System” (HTML)

Instructions: Click on the link above and read this webpage to learn more about the structure, function, and physiology of the male reproductive system including puberty and aging. Notice how a male’s hormones play a big role in development. Like all endocrine systems, the gonads are regulated through feedback mechanisms.

Reading this webpage should take approximately 2 hours.

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14.3 Female Reproductive System

Reading: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “The Female Reproductive System”
Link: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “The Female Reproductive System” (HTML)

Instructions: Click on the link above and read this webpage to learn more about the structure, function, and physiology of the female reproductive system, including the external and internal genitals. Estrogen plays an important role in female functioning, including bone health, metabolism, and of course reproductive function.

Reading this webpage should take approximately 2 hours.

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14.4 The Menstrual Cycle

Web Media: YouTube: Robert Winter’s “The Menstrual Cycle: Part 1” and “The Menstrual Cycle: Part 2”
Link: YouTube: Robert Winter’s “The Menstrual Cycle: Part 1” and “The Menstrual Cycle: Part 2” (YouTube)

Instructions: Click on the links above and watchthese videos for a detailed visual illustration of the menstrual cycle and its regulation via positive and negative feedback loops.

Watching these videos and pausing to take notes should take approximately 30 minutes.

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Reading: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “The Female Reproductive Cycle” and “Ovarian and Uterine Cycles”
Link: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “The Female Reproductive Cycle” (HTML) and “Ovarian and Uterine Cycles” (HTML)

Instructions: Read the sections “The Female Reproductive Cycle” and “Ovarian and Uterine Cycles” to learn about the hormonal and physical processes surrounding female fertility and menstruation.

Reading these sections should take approximately 1 hour.

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14.5 Fertilization, Pregnancy, and Labor

Reading: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “Pregnancy and Birth”
Link: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “Pregnancy and Birth” (HTML)

Instructions: Click on the link above and read this webpage to learn about the fertilization of egg and sperm cells, trimesters in pregnancy, and stages of labor.

Reading this webpage should take approximately 2 hours.

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Assessment: McGraw-Hill Online Learning Center: Seeley, Stephens, & Tate’s “Reproductive System: Clinical Application One” and “Reproductive System: Clinical Application Two”
Link: McGraw-Hill Online Learning Center: Seeley, Stephens, & Tate’s “Reproductive System: Clinical Application One” (HTML) and “Reproductive System: Clinical Application Two” (HTML)

Instructions: Click on the links above, read these examples, and respond to the questions that follow after working through the materials in this unit. Click the “Submit Answers” button at the bottom of the page for instant feedback.

Completing these assessments should take approximately 1 hour and 30 minutes.

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Assessment: McGraw-Hill Online Learning Center: Seeley, Stephens, & Tate’s “Reproductive System: Chapter Quiz” and Stuart Ira Fox’s “Reproductive System: Critical Thinking Exercises”
Link: McGraw-Hill Online Learning Center: Seeley, Stephens, & Tate’s “Reproductive System: Chapter Quiz” (HTML) and Stuart Ira Fox’s “Reproductive System: Critical Thinking Exercises” (HTML)

Instructions: Click on the links above and complete the quizzes to demonstrate your understanding of reproductive system physiology after working through the materials in this subunit.

Completing these assessments should take approximately 1 hour.

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Unit 15: The Immune System

The immune system fights off infection and disease. It begins with lines of defense (i.e. your skin) and is backed by the blood and lymphatic systems. White blood cells patrol the blood and lymphatic system looking for foreign invaders. Five white blood cell types are found in the blood, including those that phagocytize (engulf) bacteria and amoebas. Others release histamine, other granules, or antibodies in allergic or antigen specific responses. Some of these move out of the blood into the tissue and specialized immune system cells are also found in the tissue space. Collectively these cells, along with other factors and organs such as the spleen and the lymph nodes, protect your body and help maintain homeostasis. In this unit, we will study the ways that your immune system works to keep your body safe and in good health.

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15.1 Immune System: Overview

Reading: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “The Immune System”
Link: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “The Immune System” (HTML)

Instructions: Click on the link above and read this webpage about the immune system, which includes an explanation of the lymphatic system and its importance to the body’s overall defense mechanisms. This system allows us to live in a world that is filled with microorganisms. It also protects us from our own cells that get out of control and at times even causes disease.

Reading this webpage should take approximately 2 hours.

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Web Media: YouTube: Garland Science’s “Immune Response” and Dr. Moffet’s “Lymphatic System”
Link: YouTube: Garland Science’s “Immune Response” (YouTube) and Dr. Moffet’s “Lymphatic System” (YouTube)

Instructions: Click on the links above and watch these videos for a visual review of the immune response and the lymphatic system. Take note of the organs, tissues, and cells involved and how they work together for a common purpose. Did you notice how many different cells and factors are involved in the immune response? This video is just an overview and does not cover all of the players in this process. It is a very complex job protecting the body from harm!

Watching these videos and pausing to take notes should take approximately 15 minutes.

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15.2 Immune System: Organs and Cells

Reading: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “The Immune System”
Link: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “The Immune System” (HTML)

Instructions: Click on the link above and read the webpage, focusing on the sections titled “Organs, Tissues, and Cells of the Immune System” through “Leukocytes” and “Different Types of Lymphocyte Cells” to learn about the organs and cells involved in defense. As you complete this reading, please focus on answering two questions: 1) What are the “lines of defense,” or the “players” in immune response? 2) What are the steps in the process of immune response.

Reading this webpage and answering the questions above should take approximately 2 hours.

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15.3 Immune System Responses

Reading: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “Defense against Infection” (HTML) including “Immune Response Pathway”
Link: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “Defense against Infection” (HTML) including “Immune Response Pathway” (HTML)

Instructions: Read the section titled “Defense against Infection,” including “Immune Response Pathway,” for some general information about the different types of defense mechanisms and body’s responses.

Reading these sections should take approximately 1 hour and 30 minutes.

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15.4 Immune System Disorders

Reading: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “Immune System Disorders” through “Immunodeficiency Diseases”
Link: Wikibooks’ Human Physiology: “Immune System Disorders” (HTML) through “Immunodeficiency Diseases” (HTML)

Instructions: Read the sections titled “Immune System Disorders” through “Immunodeficiency Diseases” to learn about the diseases that can affect the physiology of the immune system.

Reading these sections should take approximately 30 minutes.

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Web Media: YouTube: Dr. Rufus Rajadurai’s “Allergy Animation”, Dr.Stone16’s “Autoimmune Disorders: Intro”, and Illumistream Health’s “When HIV Becomes AIDS”
Link: YouTube: Dr. Rufus Rajadurai’s “Allergy Animation” (YouTube), Dr.Stone16’s “Autoimmune Disorders: Intro” (YouTube), and Illumistream Health’s “When HIV Becomes AIDS” (YouTube)

Instructions: Sometimes the immune system is overactive or underactive, and this causes problems. Watch these YouTube videos to learn about allergens, mechanisms of autoimmune disorders, and AIDS. Think about the differences between immunodeficiency and autoimmune disease, and consider how the manifestation of symptoms illustrates the shift.

Watching these videos and pausing to take notes should take approximately 30 minutes.

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Assessment: McGraw-Hill Online Learning Center: Seeley, Stephens, & Tate’s “Lymphatic System and Immunity: Clinical Application”
Link: McGraw-Hill Online Learning Center: Seeley, Stephens, & Tate’s “Lymphatic System and Immunity: Clinical Application” (HTML)

Instructions: Read this example of a clinical application of knowledge of lymphatic system physiology, and respond to the questions that follow. Click the “Submit Answers” button at the bottom of the page for instant feedback.

Completing this assessment should take approximately 1 hour.

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Assessment: McGraw-Hill Online Learning Center: Stuart Ira Fox’s “The Immune System Quiz: Multiple Choice 1” (HTML) “The Immune System Quiz: Fill in the Blanks” (HTML), and “The Immune System Quiz: Critical Thinking Exercises”
Link: McGraw-Hill Online Learning Center: Stuart Ira Fox’s “The Immune System Quiz: Multiple Choice 1” (HTML) “The Immune System Quiz: Fill in the Blanks” (HTML), and “The Immune System Quiz: Critical Thinking Exercises” (HTML)

Instructions: Click on the links above and complete these quizzes to demonstrate your understanding of basic immune system physiology concepts. For the critical thinking questions, take a second after reading each question to think about how the concepts you have just learned apply, and formulate a short, thoughtful answer. Click the “Submit Answers” button for instant feedback.

Completing these assessments should take approximately 2 hours.

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Final Exam

Final Exam: The Saylor Foundation’s “BIO304 Final Exam”
Link: The Saylor Foundation’s “BIO304 Final Exam”

Instructions: You must be logged into your Saylor Foundation School account in order to access this exam. If you do not yet have an account, you will be able to create one, free of charge, after clicking the link.
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